Millions of local communities in southern Africa depend on forest ecosystems and the goods and services they provide for their livelihoods. This paper aims to assess the socio-economic benefits of forest goods and services in a changing climate by focusing on the forest products of Colophospermum mopane (C. mopane) in the Kunene and Omusati regions in northern Namibia. We used C. mopane product data from 2011 to 2021. Our analyses showed that local communities harvested five main products from C. mopane, namely firewood, poles, droppers, rafters, and roots. Firewood and poles were the primary C. mopane products harvested by local communities, mainly for subsistence use. Our results suggest that C. mopane potentially continues to the provision of goods and services for the livelihood of local communities, despite the changing climate in northern Namibia. We propose future studies in predictive analysis focus on extreme weather events, such as forest fires, droughts, floods, and other climate-related hazards that affect goods and services provided by forest ecosystems in the northern regions and the entire country.

The impacts of climate change are severe in rural communities because of their proximity to forest ecosystems. Colophospermum mopane woodlands are vital in supporting the livelihood of the rural communities in the mopane woodlands while contributing to biodiversity conservation. There is limited research regarding implementing policy instruments for climate change adaptation in rural areas of the mopane woodlands in northern Namibia. This study aims to investigate this subject from the mopane woodlands’ point of view to understand the implementation of policy instruments for climate change adaptation in the mopane woodlands. We conducted an online survey focusing on multiple stakeholders, experts in different sectors, and local communities. Major challenges such as a limited general understanding of climate change, its impacts, dry conditions of Namibia, and lack of funds for adaptation measures hamper the implementation of policy instruments for climate change adaptation in mopane woodlands. Policymakers and relevant stakeholders should emphasize altering rural communities’ reliance on forest resources for their livelihood by improving their awareness of the impacts of climate change. Future research should evaluate climate change policy instruments’ framework and strategies in the context of forest ecosystems at the rural area level of Namibia.

Forest ecosystem services are crucial in adaptation, mitigation, and increasing climate change resilience. Although most climate change policies promote adaptation actions in forest ecosystem services, there are limited studies focusing on the forest ecosystem services-based adaptation actions supported by the National Policy on Climate Change for Namibia (NPCC). This paper aims to assess the effectiveness of forestry adaptation actions of the NPCC. An independent t-test for non-categorical data was used for the statistical analysis to compare mean scores of the implementation effectiveness of adaptation actions and challenges before and after the NPCC implementation, according to the perceptions of forestry and climate change cross-sectoral experts. A p-value less than 0.05 (p < 0.05) was designated as the statistical significance. Adaptation actions in forest ecosystem services were significantly effective after the introduction of the NPCC. Biodiversity and carbon sequestration were significantly effective after the introduction of the NPCC. The most significant challenges identified were the lack of awareness, which affected adaptation actions before and after the policy. Afforestation, reforestation, awareness, and forestry research need strengthening to improve the effectiveness of the NPCC. Although our results showed that adaptation actions supported by the NPCC were generally effective after the introduction of the policy, we identified some implementation areas that require strengthening, mainly through research, to help in sound decision-making. We, therefore, recommend future research to analyze the strengths, weaknesses, threats, and opportunities (SWOT) of the NPCC and consequently design/propose a framework for forest ecosystem services-based adaptation actions in the policy to improve adaptation actions.

Considered mankind's first-ever source of energy, wood is still of great importance to human society and fulfils several important roles in various fields (Sreevani 2018). Today, it is used in many forms, especially in construction , furniture, paper and pulp production, to make musical instruments, household items, toys, packaging materials and other products. Globally, it is also of great value as an energy source (Hájek et al. 2024).

Colophospermum mopane (C. mopane) is a drought-tolerant deciduous tree that provides essential ecosystem services for local communities. Despite its socioeconomic importance, the feasibility of these benefits under changing climatic conditions remains understudied, particularly in sparsely forested regions such as north-central Namibia. In this study, we assess the feasibility of C. mopane’s socioeconomic contributions in Namibia’s Kunene and Omusati regions by focusing on subsistence and commercial use. Using a semi-structured questionnaire, we collected data from local communities at four Forestry offices: Outapi, Tsandi, Opuwo, and Okahao-yielding 117 responses. We employed descriptive statistics to analyse data using IBM SPSS combined with Microsoft Excel. The results revealed that firewood was the most common product of C. mopane, primarily harvested for subsistence purposes. The products were mainly harvested from crop fields. Household income from C. mopane products ranged from <1,000 to 5,000 Namibian Dollars (NAD) per sale, with peak earnings recorded in 2019 and 2020. Key climate-related challenges affecting these benefits included floods, thunderstorms, and erratic rainfall. Respondents highlighted the need for improved wood-processing skills, better market access, and financial support to enhance the sustainability of C. mopane-based livelihoods. We recommend targeted climate adaptation strategies such as agroforestry, tree planting projects, drought-resistant crops, and community education on sustainable resource use and promoting alternative energy sources such as solar power for cooking and heating. Future studies should evaluate the effectiveness of climate adaptation and mitigation strategies in managing mopane woodlands for long-term socioeconomic resilience.

Climate change has a significant impact on forest ecosystems worldwide. In southern Africa, climate change is a critical concern for forest ecosystems due to climate variability and extremes, including droughts and floods, which in some cases have had severe economic and social implications. Other contributing factors to the region’s vulnerability to climate change impacts include poor socioeconomic conditions, increased reliance on natural resources, primarily forests, and an inability to implement adaptive measures effectively. Most countries in the region prioritize climate change adaptation actions in forest management practices. We conducted a five-country, expert-elicited baseline of who funds what in forestry adaptation, disaggregated by funding source, forest ownership class, ecosystem service, adaptation action type, and perceived requirements/monitoring. We employed a hybrid method, combining online interviews and an online survey targeting forestry experts in the region. The study collected survey responses from 42 forestry experts and conducted seven interviews with forestry experts across the selected countries: Namibia, Botswana, South Africa, Tanzania, and Zambia. Our results revealed that community forests were the highly prioritized category of forest ownership funding for climate change adaptation actions. The primary sources of funds were international donors and government subsidies. Sustainable forest management, biodiversity conservation and combating deforestation were the most prioritized adaptation actions. Although most countries prioritize climate change adaptation in forest management practices, the region needs sustainable funding sources to support these efforts. Forestry experts also proposed establishing collective funding sources for regional adaptation activities. Our results suggest donor- and subsidy-heavy portfolios; protected forests and watershed services receive comparatively less attention, indicating coordination and targeting gaps. Our study recommends future research on the appropriate allocation of climate change adaptation funds, their sustainable utilization, and the effects of insufficient funds on forest ecosystem services at the regional level.