Widespread and tremendously thick Cenozoic carbonate sequences are present along the margins of the South China Sea (SCS). However, most of the sequences have been drowned since the Late Miocene. The stratigraphic architecture of the carbonate platforms in the SCS can provide information on the tectonic evolution of the ocean basin. Based on 2D/3D seismic, well and regional geologic data, we have interpreted the Cenozoic SCS carbonate platforms along the continental margins. The carbonate platforms developed during rifting and initiated on the fault block of the conjugate rifted margins. Most of the carbonate platforms became drowned after the Middle Miocene. The Malampaya Carbonate Sequences, which have thicknesses of greater than 600 m, developed on a horst of an Oligocene rifted block. Tectonic subsidence provided accommodation for the growth of the carbonate platforms. Tectonic tilting, faulting, and the foreland bulge controlled the distributions, thicknesses, and horizontal seismic reflection variations of the drowned carbonate platforms. The tectonic evolution and relative sea-level fluctuations controlled the depositional cycles of the carbonate platforms. We quantitatively calculated the factors that affected the extension and subsidence rates using balanced cross section and backstepping techniques. Our results have demonstrated that the carbonate platforms flourished during the Middle Miocene due to stable tectonic conditions and shrank during the Late Miocene due to rapid subsidence. The relative sea level exerted a second-order control on the evolutionary trend of the carbonate platforms and a third-order control on the evolutionary periods in each stage.

The evolution and mechanisms of tectonic subsidence in the Xisha area are poorly investigated, especially the spatiotemporal distribution features and reasons for the variations in tectonic subsidence. In this study, multi-channel seismic data and stratigraphic and lithologic features of wells are used to examine tectonic subsidence in the Xisha area from the Paleogene to Quaternary. The largest tectonic subsidence in the Xisha area is located in the Changchang Depression, with a maximum subsidence of 5.4 km, while the smallest tectonic subsidence is located on the Guangle Uplift and Xisha Uplift, which are close to 1.0 km and 1.5 km, respectively. Two rapid tectonic subsidence phases were mainly in the Oligocene, and from Middle to Late Miocene, with maximum subsidence rates of 0.45 m/ky and 0.32 m/ky, respectively. Five phases for the tectonic subsidence are proposed since the Paleogene based on our data. (1) The slow subsidence phase during the Eocene (53.5–32 Ma) was due to the transchronicity of the basement in the pro-rifted stage. (2) The rapid subsidence phase was common in the south and north margins of Qiongdongnan Basin, because of the faults triggered by the inherited stretched and thinned of crust in the Oligocene from 32 to 23.3 Ma. (3) The interim phase followed the rapid subsidence phase was in the Early Miocene (23.3–15.5 Ma) and marked the end of the rifted stage. (4) The accelerated rise phase started from the Middle Miocene (15.5 Ma) to the Late Miocene (5.5 Ma), and the reversal of the Red River Fault Zone may be tied to the acceleration of the tectonic subsidence. (5) The transitional phase started in the Pliocene (5.5 Ma) and lasts to the present. As the Red River Fault Zone changed from sinistral to dextral movement, the stress field of the study area has changed. Our results are helpful to better understand the spatiotemporal coupling relationship between tectonic subsidence and regional geological evolution in the Xisha area, South China Sea.

This research focuses on the seismic characteristics of various fluid flow systems at the southern margin of the South China Sea. We have considered their associated seismic responses and hydrocarbon accumulations and determined the relationships between fluid flow and hydrocarbon migration. From amplitude anomalies and geometric morphology, we identify different focused fluid flow systems, such as mud diapirs/mud volcanoes, gas chimneys, pipes, and fault-related flow systems. We observe that gas-bearing fields associated with high-amplitude anomalous, low-amplitude chaotic, and “drop-down” reflection events serve as distinguishing features of focused fluid flow systems. These systems are affected by tectonic movements and sedimentation, and they are closely related to deep, high-temperature, and high-pressure plastic fluids. Furthermore, our investigations show that focused fluid flow systems, which preferentially develop in the weak parts of the strata, as well as associated faults and fractures, often act as conduits for hydrocarbon migration and accumulation. Therefore, these systems should be given the utmost attention during seismic exploration for hydrocarbons.

The newly collected seismic data and the existing drilling data provide a good opportunity to better understand the carbonate platform distribution characteristics and the hydrocarbon resource potential in the Xisha sea area of the South China Sea. Based on the seismic data and the reflection characteristics of the carbonate platform’s edge, three boundary indicators were established: abrupt lithological interfaces, fault interfaces, and tidal channels. Combined with the regional geological settings, its spatial and temporal distribution was clearly identified for the first time. The development of the Miocene carbonate platform in the Xisha sea area is divided into six phases, which are further assigned to three evolutionary stages: the bloom stage, the recession stage, and the submerged stage. The sedimentary facies belt of the carbonate platform in each stage is well developed, and the reefs are mainly distributed on the west and southwest edges of the platform. The analysis of the data indicates that the area of the reef and carbonate platform reached 80,000 km² during the mature period, followed by a retreat period where the scale decreased with the platform’s decline. The Miocene carbonate rocks in the Xisha sea area are widely distributed. They have experienced multiple periods of exposure and infiltration, which further improved the quality of their physical properties for hydrocarbon reservoirs. According to the regional hydrocarbon geological conditions in this area—including the source rock, migration system and the capping layer—the hydrocarbon accumulation potential is preliminarily discussed in this paper. A reservoir model of the reef and carbonate platform is established, which is proposed as typical characteristics of “lower generation, upper accumulation”. It is pointed out that the carbonate platform in the Xisha sea area adjacent to the Huaguang Sag in the Qiongdongnan Basin and the northern Zhongjiannan Basin is a potential area for oil and gas exploration.

In this study, high-resolution seismic profiles and well data provided a good opportunity for better understanding the reefs and carbonate platforms in the Wan’an Basin, southwest of the South China Sea, and also provided valuable information for the oil–gas exploration in the reef reservoirs. Four evolutional phases, including the initial phase, the prosperous phase, the recession phase and the submerged phase, of the reefs and carbonate platforms are proposed according to our data. In the Early Miocene, a few small, isolated carbonate platforms initiated in the center of the basin. In the Middle Miocene, they flourished and mainly formed around the Northern Uplift and Central Uplift, with two belts of carbonate platforms in the western area and eastern area that were mainly platform-edge reefs, massive reefs and a few point reefs. In the Late Miocene, the carbonate platforms began to retreat towards the high topographic position because of the rising of sea level. Meanwhile, the numbers and styles of reefs increased to include platform-edge reefs, massive reefs, atoll reefs and point reefs. Since the Pliocene, most of the carbonate platforms have been covered by detrital materials from terrestrial sources. Crustal tectonic activity provides favorable topography for reef growth and the distribution of platforms, and eustasy controlled the vertical growth and lateral migration of reefs. Since the Late Miocene, the rapidly crustal tectonic subsidence and the rising of relative sea level may lead to the drowning of the carbonate platform.