Objective: To estimate the numbers and proportions of cancers occurring in Australia in 2010 attributable to modifiable causal factors. Methods: We estimated the population attributable fraction (PAF) of cancers associated with exposure to 13 causal factors using standard formulae incorporating exposure prevalence and relative risk data. We also calculated the potential impact of changing exposure to some factors. Results: A total of 32% of all cancers diagnosed in Australia in 2010 (excluding keratinocyte cancers) were attributable to the 13 factors assessed (men 33%; women 31%). Leading factors were tobacco smoke (PAF all cancers: 13.4%), solar radiation (6.2%), inadequate diet (6.1%) and overweight/obesity (3.4%). Factors conferring highest PAFs differed by sex: highest PAFs for men were tobacco smoke (15.8%), solar radiation (7.1%) and alcohol (3.0%); while highest PAFs for women were tobacco smoke (10.1%), solar radiation (5.0%) and overweight/obesity (4.5%). Sites with the highest counts of potentially preventable cancers were lung (8,569), colorectal (7,404), melanoma of the skin (7,220) and breast (3,233). Conclusions: At least one in three cancers in Australia is attributable to exposure to known modifiable factors. Implications: Up to 37,000 cancers could be prevented in Australia each year if the population avoided exposure to 13 common factors known or strongly suspected to cause cancer.

Objective: To examine socio-economic differences in the frequency and types of takeaway foods consumed.Design: A cross-sectional postal survey.Setting: Participants were asked about their usual consumption of overall takeaway food (<4 times/month or ≥4 times/month) and of twenty-two specific takeaway food items (<1 time/month or ≥1 time/month); these latter foods were grouped into ‘healthy’ and ‘less healthy’ choices. Socio-economic position was measured on the basis of educational level and equivalised household income, and differences in takeaway food consumption were assessed by calculating prevalence ratios using log binomial regression.Subjects: Adults aged 25–64 years from Brisbane, Australia, were randomly selected from the electoral roll (n903; 63·7 % response rate).Results: Compared with their more educated counterparts, the least educated were more regular consumers of overall takeaway food and fruit or vegetable juice and less regular consumers of sushi. For the ‘less healthy’ items, the least educated more regularly consumed potato chips, savoury pies, fried chicken and non-diet soft drinks; however, the least educated were less likely to consume curry. Household income was not associated with overall takeaway consumption. The lowest-income group was a more regular consumer of fruit or vegetable juice compared with the highest-income group. Among the ‘less healthy’ items, the lowest-income group was a more regular consumer of fried fish, ice cream and milk shakes, whereas curry was consumed less regularly.Conclusions: The frequency and types of takeaway foods consumed by socio-economically disadvantaged groups may contribute to inequalities in overweight or obesity and to chronic disease.

Objective: To describe the approach underpinning a national project to estimate the numbers and proportions of cancers occurring in Australia in 2010 that are attributable to modifiable causal factors. Methods: We estimated the population attributable fraction (PAF) (or prevented fraction) of cancers associated with exposure to causal (or preventive) factors using standard formulae. Where possible, we also estimated the potential impact on cancer incidence resulting from changes in prevalence of exposure. Analyses were restricted to factors declared causal by international agencies: tobacco smoke; alcohol; solar radiation; infectious agents; obesity; insufficient physical activity; insufficient intakes of fruits, vegetables and fibre; red and processed meat; menopausal hormone therapy (MHT); oral contraceptive pill (OCP); and insufficient breast feeding. Separately, we estimated numbers of cancers prevented by: aspirin; sunscreen; MHT; and OCP use. We discuss assumptions pertaining to latent periods between exposure and cancer onset, choices of prevalence data and risk estimates, and approaches to sensitivity analyses. Results: Numbers and population attributable fractions of cancer are presented in accompanying papers. Conclusions: This is the first systematic assessment of population attributable fractions of cancer in Australia.

Background: Takeaway consumption has been increasing and may contribute to socioeconomic inequalities in overweight/obesity and chronic disease. This study examined socioeconomic differences in takeaway consumption patterns and their contributions to dietary intake inequalities. Method: Cross-sectional dietary intake data from adults aged between 25 and 64 years from the Australian National Nutrition Survey (n = 7319, 61% response rate). Twenty-four-hour dietary recalls ascertained intakes of takeaway food, nutrients and fruit and vegetables. Education was used as a socioeconomic indicator. Data were analysed using logistic regression and general linear models. Results: Thirty-two per cent (n = 2327) consumed takeaway foods in the 24-hour period. Lower educated participants were less likely than their higher educated counterparts to have consumed total takeaway foods (OR 0.64; 95% CI 0.52 to 0.80). Of those consuming takeaway foods, the lowest educated group was more likely to have consumed “less healthy” takeaway choices (OR 2.55; 95% CI 1.73 to 3.77), and less likely to have consumed “healthy” choices (OR 0.52; 95% CI 0.36 to 0.75). Takeaway foods made a greater contribution to energy, total fat, saturated fat and fibre intakes among lower than among higher educated groups. Lower likelihood of fruit and vegetable intakes were observed among “less healthy” takeaway consumers, whereas a greater likelihood of their consumption was found among “healthy” takeaway consumers. Conclusions: Total and the types of takeaway foods consumed may contribute to socioeconomic inequalities in intakes of energy, total and saturated fats. However, takeaway consumption is unlikely to be a factor contributing to the lower fruit and vegetable intakes among socioeconomically disadvantaged groups.

Objectives: To estimate the number and proportion of cancers occurring in Australia in 2010 attributable to consumption deficits in fruit, non‐starchy vegetables and dietary fibre. Methods: We estimated the population attributable fraction (PAF) for cancers causally associated with inadequate intake of fruit and non‐starchy vegetables (oral cavity, pharynx, oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma, stomach, larynx); inadequate intake of fruit (lung); and insufficient intake of fibre (colorectum). We used standard formulae incorporating prevalence of exposure (1995 National Nutrition Survey) and relative risks from independent studies. Results: Overall, 1,555 (1.4% of all) and 311 (0.3% of all) cancers were attributable to inadequate intakes of fruit and non‐starchy vegetables, respectively. A further 2,609 colorectal cancers (18% of colorectal) were attributable to insufficient fibre intake. If Australians increased their fibre intake by eating the recommended daily intakes of fruit and vegetables, an estimated 1,293 (8.8%) colorectal cancers could be prevented. Conclusions: One in six colorectal cancer cases was attributable to inadequate intake of dietary fibre and about 1,800 cancers at other sites were attributable to insufficient fruit and non‐starchy vegetable consumption. Implications: Increasing the proportion of Australians who consume the recommended intake of fruit, vegetables and fibre could prevent up to 4% of all cancers.