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The planetary boundaries concept has profoundly changed the vocabulary and representation of global environmental issues. We bring a critical social science perspective to this framework through the notion of societal boundaries and aim to provide a more nuanced understanding of the social nature of thresholds. We start by highlighting the strengths and weaknesses of planetary boundaries from a social science perspective. We then focus on capitalist societies as a heuristic for discussing the expansionary dynamics, power relations, and lock-ins of modern societies that impel highly unsustainable societal relations with nature. While formulating societal boundaries implies a controversial process ‒ based on normative judgments, ethical concerns, and socio-political struggles ‒ it has the potential to offer guidelines for a just, social-ecological transformation. Collective autonomy and the politics of self-limitation are key elements of societal boundaries and are linked to important proposals and pluriverse experiences to integrate well-being and boundaries. The role of the state and propositions for radical alternative approaches to well-being have particular importance. We conclude with reflections on social freedom, defined as the right not to live at others’ expense. Toward the aim of defining boundaries through transdisciplinary and democratic processes, we seek to open a dialogue on these issues.
Ulrich Brand; Barbara Muraca; Éric Pineault; Marlyne Sahakian; Anke Schaffartzik; Andreas Novy; Christoph Streissler; Helmut Haberl; Viviana Asara; Kristina Dietz; Miriam Lang; Ashish Kothari; Tone Smith; Clive Spash; Alina Brad; Melanie Pichler; Christina Plank; Giorgos Velegrakis; Thomas Jahn; Angela Carter; Qingzhi Huan; Giorgos Kallis; Joan Martínez Alier; Gabriel Riva; Vishwas Satgar; Emiliano Teran Mantovani; Michelle Williams; Markus Wissen; Christoph Görg. From planetary to societal boundaries: an argument for collectively defined self-limitation. Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy 2021, 17, 265 -292.
AMA StyleUlrich Brand, Barbara Muraca, Éric Pineault, Marlyne Sahakian, Anke Schaffartzik, Andreas Novy, Christoph Streissler, Helmut Haberl, Viviana Asara, Kristina Dietz, Miriam Lang, Ashish Kothari, Tone Smith, Clive Spash, Alina Brad, Melanie Pichler, Christina Plank, Giorgos Velegrakis, Thomas Jahn, Angela Carter, Qingzhi Huan, Giorgos Kallis, Joan Martínez Alier, Gabriel Riva, Vishwas Satgar, Emiliano Teran Mantovani, Michelle Williams, Markus Wissen, Christoph Görg. From planetary to societal boundaries: an argument for collectively defined self-limitation. Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy. 2021; 17 (1):265-292.
Chicago/Turabian StyleUlrich Brand; Barbara Muraca; Éric Pineault; Marlyne Sahakian; Anke Schaffartzik; Andreas Novy; Christoph Streissler; Helmut Haberl; Viviana Asara; Kristina Dietz; Miriam Lang; Ashish Kothari; Tone Smith; Clive Spash; Alina Brad; Melanie Pichler; Christina Plank; Giorgos Velegrakis; Thomas Jahn; Angela Carter; Qingzhi Huan; Giorgos Kallis; Joan Martínez Alier; Gabriel Riva; Vishwas Satgar; Emiliano Teran Mantovani; Michelle Williams; Markus Wissen; Christoph Görg. 2021. "From planetary to societal boundaries: an argument for collectively defined self-limitation." Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy 17, no. 1: 265-292.
Transdisciplinary research (TDR) seeks to address real-world problems and aims to be socially transformative. This normative objective extends beyond particular TDR projects, as real-world problems are embedded in concrete contexts but, at the same time, are also related to wider societal challenges that are not restricted to one context. Therefore, TDR generally entails transfer of knowledge and results to other contexts. However, the TDR discourse has mainly treated transfer efforts from the perspective of scientific generalization, translation and packaging of knowledge. Within this understanding of transfer, little attention has been paid to interplay between contexts and the role of new contexts themselves. This article is based on qualitative explorative research on four TDR projects. Its results were iteratively derived through project analysis, reflection on insights from the literature and discussions with TDR experts. We propose that transfer is a complex reciprocal process in which different types of knowledge are provided and transferred to other contexts, where knowledge is adapted, enriched and modified. In addition to project researchers, actors in other (pick-up) contexts also play an important role for successful transfer and appropriation of TDR results. Generating transfer potential within the duration of a project depends on being aware of potential pick-up contexts. To address the interdependent aspects of transfer (results, mediation, and appropriation in other contexts), we present a comprehensive model outlining TDR transfer processes. To support projects seeking to raise their transfer potential in a more conscious manner, we also formulate three overarching recommendations: 1) process results for transfer adequately, 2) identify and support intermediaries and, 3) increase awareness of and address other contexts. Considering these recommendations while also being aware of their interdependence may increase potential for transfer of knowledge and results to other contexts. Our conceptual understanding acknowledges the complexity and non-linearity of endeavors to take advantage of case-specifically gained knowledge and results in other contexts or at other scales.
Emilia Nagy; Anna Ransiek; Martina Schäfer; Alexandra Lux; Matthias Bergmann; Thomas Jahn; Oskar Marg; Lena Theiler. Transfer as a reciprocal process: How to foster receptivity to results of transdisciplinary research. Environmental Science & Policy 2019, 104, 148 -160.
AMA StyleEmilia Nagy, Anna Ransiek, Martina Schäfer, Alexandra Lux, Matthias Bergmann, Thomas Jahn, Oskar Marg, Lena Theiler. Transfer as a reciprocal process: How to foster receptivity to results of transdisciplinary research. Environmental Science & Policy. 2019; 104 ():148-160.
Chicago/Turabian StyleEmilia Nagy; Anna Ransiek; Martina Schäfer; Alexandra Lux; Matthias Bergmann; Thomas Jahn; Oskar Marg; Lena Theiler. 2019. "Transfer as a reciprocal process: How to foster receptivity to results of transdisciplinary research." Environmental Science & Policy 104, no. : 148-160.
Transdisciplinary sustainability research aims to mitigate or to solve complex societal problems and advance the production of scientific knowledge. Reflexive approaches to transdisciplinary research processes are outlined to systematically strengthen the potential for societal effectiveness. So far, it is rare to find empirically based analyses of the links between the quality of the research process and the methods applied on the one hand and the effects achieved on the other. This paper thus addresses the issue of heightening the societal effects of transdisciplinary sustainability research. The objective is to explore ways of consciously promoting societal effectiveness in transdisciplinary research. We argue that these possibilities evolve at the intersection between the general project framework and an adaptive shaping of transdisciplinary research processes. A reflexive approach of this kind proactively considers the dynamics of interests and concerns, roles and responsibilities, the collaboration culture within a project, and the connectivity to the context of action addressed. Its deployment presupposes an appreciation of the basic conditions, i.e. the historical development of the respective problem, the heterogeneity of actors involved, the general environment and, finally, the funding conditions.
Alexandra Lux; Martina Schäfer; Matthias Bergmann; Thomas Jahn; Oskar Marg; Emilia Nagy; Anna-Christin Ransiek; Lena Theiler. Societal effects of transdisciplinary sustainability research—How can they be strengthened during the research process? Environmental Science & Policy 2019, 101, 183 -191.
AMA StyleAlexandra Lux, Martina Schäfer, Matthias Bergmann, Thomas Jahn, Oskar Marg, Emilia Nagy, Anna-Christin Ransiek, Lena Theiler. Societal effects of transdisciplinary sustainability research—How can they be strengthened during the research process? Environmental Science & Policy. 2019; 101 ():183-191.
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlexandra Lux; Martina Schäfer; Matthias Bergmann; Thomas Jahn; Oskar Marg; Emilia Nagy; Anna-Christin Ransiek; Lena Theiler. 2019. "Societal effects of transdisciplinary sustainability research—How can they be strengthened during the research process?" Environmental Science & Policy 101, no. : 183-191.
Reaktion auf fünf Beiträge in GAIA zur Theorie transdisziplinärer Forschung
Thomas Jahn; Florian Keil; Oskar Marg. Transdisziplinarität: zwischen Praxis und Theorie. GAIA - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society 2019, 28, 16 -20.
AMA StyleThomas Jahn, Florian Keil, Oskar Marg. Transdisziplinarität: zwischen Praxis und Theorie. GAIA - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society. 2019; 28 (1):16-20.
Chicago/Turabian StyleThomas Jahn; Florian Keil; Oskar Marg. 2019. "Transdisziplinarität: zwischen Praxis und Theorie." GAIA - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society 28, no. 1: 16-20.
Transformation has become a major topic of sustainability research. This opens up new perspectives, but at the same time, runs the danger to convert into a new critical orthodoxy which narrows down analytical perspectives. Most research is committed towards a political-strategic approach towards transformation. This focus, however, clashes with ongoing transformation processes towards un-sustainability. The paper presents cornerstones of an integrative approach to social-ecological transformations (SET), which builds upon empirical work and conceptual considerations from Social Ecology and Political Ecology. We argue that a critical understanding of the challenges for societal transformations can be advanced by focusing on the interdependencies between societies and the natural environment. This starting point provides a more realistic understanding of the societal and biophysical constraints of sustainability transformations by emphasising the crisis-driven and contested character of the appropriation of nature and the power relations involved. Moreover, it pursues a transdisciplinary mode of research, decisive for adequately understanding any strategy for transformations towards sustainability. Such a conceptual approach of SET is supposed to better integrate the analytical, normative and political-strategic dimension of transformation research. We use the examples of global land use patterns, neo-extractivism in Latin America and the global water crisis to clarify our approach.
Christoph Görg; Ulrich Brand; Helmut Haberl; Diana Hummel; Thomas Jahn; Stefan Liehr. Challenges for Social-Ecological Transformations: Contributions from Social and Political Ecology. Sustainability 2017, 9, 1045 .
AMA StyleChristoph Görg, Ulrich Brand, Helmut Haberl, Diana Hummel, Thomas Jahn, Stefan Liehr. Challenges for Social-Ecological Transformations: Contributions from Social and Political Ecology. Sustainability. 2017; 9 (7):1045.
Chicago/Turabian StyleChristoph Görg; Ulrich Brand; Helmut Haberl; Diana Hummel; Thomas Jahn; Stefan Liehr. 2017. "Challenges for Social-Ecological Transformations: Contributions from Social and Political Ecology." Sustainability 9, no. 7: 1045.
The sustainability discourse is, essentially, centered on the question of how complex relations between nature and society can be conceptualized, analyzed and shaped. In this paper, we present a specific interpretation of social ecology as an attempt to address this question. For this purpose, we establish Frankfurt Social Ecology (FSE) as a formal research program, which is based on the concept of societal relations to nature (SRN). The basic idea of the SRN concept is to put the modern distinction between nature and society at the start of a critical analysis. Such an analysis, we argue, has to focus on the interplay between what we call patterns and modes of regulation. Whereas patterns of regulation stand for the material and symbolic aspects of the organization of the individual and societal satisfaction of needs, modes of regulation mirror the norms and power structures of a society. Using an approach that is based on reformulating social-ecological systems as provisioning systems, we show how this interplay can be analyzed empirically. Finally, we propose critical transdisciplinarity as the research mode of choice of FSE. To conclude, we discuss how FSE can contribute to the development of a research program for a sustainable Anthropocene.
Diana Hummel; Thomas Jahn; Florian Keil; Stefan Liehr; Immanuel Stieß. Social Ecology as Critical, Transdisciplinary Science—Conceptualizing, Analyzing and Shaping Societal Relations to Nature. Sustainability 2017, 9, 1050 .
AMA StyleDiana Hummel, Thomas Jahn, Florian Keil, Stefan Liehr, Immanuel Stieß. Social Ecology as Critical, Transdisciplinary Science—Conceptualizing, Analyzing and Shaping Societal Relations to Nature. Sustainability. 2017; 9 (7):1050.
Chicago/Turabian StyleDiana Hummel; Thomas Jahn; Florian Keil; Stefan Liehr; Immanuel Stieß. 2017. "Social Ecology as Critical, Transdisciplinary Science—Conceptualizing, Analyzing and Shaping Societal Relations to Nature." Sustainability 9, no. 7: 1050.
Matthias Bergmann; Thomas Jahn. Frameworks for Transdisciplinary Research: Framework #2. GAIA - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society 2017, 26, 304 -304.
AMA StyleMatthias Bergmann, Thomas Jahn. Frameworks for Transdisciplinary Research: Framework #2. GAIA - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society. 2017; 26 (4):304-304.
Chicago/Turabian StyleMatthias Bergmann; Thomas Jahn. 2017. "Frameworks for Transdisciplinary Research: Framework #2." GAIA - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society 26, no. 4: 304-304.
Der Erfolg transdisziplinärer Forschung misst sich daran, ob die angestrebten gesellschaft lichen Wirkungen erzielt werden können. Welche Methoden, Instrumente und konzeptionel len Herangehensweisen dafür geeignet sind, untersucht das Forschungsprojekt TransImpact, indem es abgeschlossene transdisziplinäre Projek te auswertet. Außerdem will das Projektteam allgemein anerkannte Qualitätsstandards entwickeln.
Matthias Bergmann; Thomas Jahn; Alexandra Lux; Emilia Nagy; Martina Schäfer; Bergmann Matthias; Jahn Thomas; Lux Alexandra; Nagy Emilia; Schäfer Martina. Wirkungsvolle transdisziplinäre Forschung: TransImpact untersucht transdisziplinäre Projekte. GAIA - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society 2016, 25, 59 -60.
AMA StyleMatthias Bergmann, Thomas Jahn, Alexandra Lux, Emilia Nagy, Martina Schäfer, Bergmann Matthias, Jahn Thomas, Lux Alexandra, Nagy Emilia, Schäfer Martina. Wirkungsvolle transdisziplinäre Forschung: TransImpact untersucht transdisziplinäre Projekte. GAIA - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society. 2016; 25 (1):59-60.
Chicago/Turabian StyleMatthias Bergmann; Thomas Jahn; Alexandra Lux; Emilia Nagy; Martina Schäfer; Bergmann Matthias; Jahn Thomas; Lux Alexandra; Nagy Emilia; Schäfer Martina. 2016. "Wirkungsvolle transdisziplinäre Forschung: TransImpact untersucht transdisziplinäre Projekte." GAIA - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society 25, no. 1: 59-60.
Reallabore etablieren sich zunehmend als neue Forschungsinfrastrukturen, mit denen sozial-ökologische Transformationen angestoßen werden sollen. Forschungsförderer und Wissenschaft versprechen sich zudem ein besseres Verständnis von Gestaltungsprozessen nachhaltiger Entwicklung. Ob Reallabore über etablierte Forschungsansätze hinausgehen, ist jedoch offen. Damit sie besser im Forschungsprozess verortet werden können ist es hilfreich, den Diskurs um Reallabore mit dem um Transdisziplinarität zu verknüpfen.
Thomas Jahn; Florian Keil. Reallabore im Kontext transdisziplinärer Forschung. GAIA - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society 2016, 25, 247 -252.
AMA StyleThomas Jahn, Florian Keil. Reallabore im Kontext transdisziplinärer Forschung. GAIA - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society. 2016; 25 (4):247-252.
Chicago/Turabian StyleThomas Jahn; Florian Keil. 2016. "Reallabore im Kontext transdisziplinärer Forschung." GAIA - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society 25, no. 4: 247-252.
Das Anthropozän ‐ das Zeitalter der Menschheit ‐ erfährt derzeit großes Interesse.Welche Konsequenzen hat die Idee von der Menschheit als einer geologischen Kraft für die Gestaltung einer nachhaltigen Entwicklung? Welche neuen Fragen ergeben sich für eine nachhaltige Wissenschaft? Die Zeitdiagnose vom Anthropozän könnte das Verhältnis von Natur- und Sozialwissenschaften und von Gesellschaft und Wissenschaft verändern: Wissenschaft wird mehr denn je als kritische Instanz gefragt und transdisziplinär aufgestellt sein müssen. Neue Formen der gesellschaftlichen Teilhabe am wissenschaftlichen Wissensprozess sind unerlässlich.
Thomas Jahn; Diana Hummel; Engelbert Schramm. Nachhaltige Wissenschaft im Anthropozän. GAIA - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society 2015, 24, 92 -95.
AMA StyleThomas Jahn, Diana Hummel, Engelbert Schramm. Nachhaltige Wissenschaft im Anthropozän. GAIA - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society. 2015; 24 (2):92-95.
Chicago/Turabian StyleThomas Jahn; Diana Hummel; Engelbert Schramm. 2015. "Nachhaltige Wissenschaft im Anthropozän." GAIA - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society 24, no. 2: 92-95.
Thomas Jahn; Florian Keil. An actor-specific guideline for quality assurance in transdisciplinary research. Futures 2015, 65, 195 -208.
AMA StyleThomas Jahn, Florian Keil. An actor-specific guideline for quality assurance in transdisciplinary research. Futures. 2015; 65 ():195-208.
Chicago/Turabian StyleThomas Jahn; Florian Keil. 2015. "An actor-specific guideline for quality assurance in transdisciplinary research." Futures 65, no. : 195-208.
Kurt Jax; David N. Barton; Kai Chan; Rudolf de Groot; Ulrike Doyle; Uta Eser; Christoph Görg; Erik Gómez-Baggethun; Yuliana Griewald; Wolfgang Haber; Roy Haines-Young; Ulrich Heink; Thomas Jahn; Hans Joosten; Lilin Kerschbaumer; Horst Korn; Gary Luck; Bettina Matzdorf; Barbara Muraca; Carsten Neßhöver; Bryan Norton; Konrad Ott; Marion Potschin; Felix Rauschmayer; Christina von Haaren; Sabine Wichmann. Ecosystem services and ethics. Ecological Economics 2013, 93, 260 -268.
AMA StyleKurt Jax, David N. Barton, Kai Chan, Rudolf de Groot, Ulrike Doyle, Uta Eser, Christoph Görg, Erik Gómez-Baggethun, Yuliana Griewald, Wolfgang Haber, Roy Haines-Young, Ulrich Heink, Thomas Jahn, Hans Joosten, Lilin Kerschbaumer, Horst Korn, Gary Luck, Bettina Matzdorf, Barbara Muraca, Carsten Neßhöver, Bryan Norton, Konrad Ott, Marion Potschin, Felix Rauschmayer, Christina von Haaren, Sabine Wichmann. Ecosystem services and ethics. Ecological Economics. 2013; 93 ():260-268.
Chicago/Turabian StyleKurt Jax; David N. Barton; Kai Chan; Rudolf de Groot; Ulrike Doyle; Uta Eser; Christoph Görg; Erik Gómez-Baggethun; Yuliana Griewald; Wolfgang Haber; Roy Haines-Young; Ulrich Heink; Thomas Jahn; Hans Joosten; Lilin Kerschbaumer; Horst Korn; Gary Luck; Bettina Matzdorf; Barbara Muraca; Carsten Neßhöver; Bryan Norton; Konrad Ott; Marion Potschin; Felix Rauschmayer; Christina von Haaren; Sabine Wichmann. 2013. "Ecosystem services and ethics." Ecological Economics 93, no. : 260-268.
Thomas Jahn; Matthias Bergmann; Florian Keil. Transdisciplinarity: Between mainstreaming and marginalization. Ecological Economics 2012, 79, 1 -10.
AMA StyleThomas Jahn, Matthias Bergmann, Florian Keil. Transdisciplinarity: Between mainstreaming and marginalization. Ecological Economics. 2012; 79 ():1-10.
Chicago/Turabian StyleThomas Jahn; Matthias Bergmann; Florian Keil. 2012. "Transdisciplinarity: Between mainstreaming and marginalization." Ecological Economics 79, no. : 1-10.
Qualitätsbeurteilungen in Wissenschaft und Forschung, etwa im Rahmen eines Peer Review, stützen sich in aller Regel auf Maßstäbe, die auf tradierten disziplinär geprägten Kulturen, Regeln und Standards beruhen — bedienen sich also impliziter, meist qualitativer Maßstäbe. Zwar nimmt das Gewicht expliziter, rein quantitativer Messmethoden wie beispielsweise Zitationsindizes, sogenannter Impact Factors oder die Höhe eingeworbener Drittmittel deutlich zu, diese lassen aber fächer- und disziplinenspezifische Methoden und Inhalte oft so weit außer Acht — verletzen also implizite Qualitätsmaßstäbe so stark —, dass sie zu Recht kritisiert werden.
Matthias Bergmann; Thomas Jahn. Intendierte Lerneffekte: Formative Evaluation inter- und transdisziplinärer Forschung. Wissenschaft unter Beobachtung 2008, 222 -247.
AMA StyleMatthias Bergmann, Thomas Jahn. Intendierte Lerneffekte: Formative Evaluation inter- und transdisziplinärer Forschung. Wissenschaft unter Beobachtung. 2008; ():222-247.
Chicago/Turabian StyleMatthias Bergmann; Thomas Jahn. 2008. "Intendierte Lerneffekte: Formative Evaluation inter- und transdisziplinärer Forschung." Wissenschaft unter Beobachtung , no. : 222-247.
The project ‘Strategies for a Sustainable Urban Mobility’ (‘Stadtverträgliche Mobilität – Handlungsstrategien für eine ökologisch und sozial verträgliche, ökonomisch effiziente Verkehrsentwicklung in Stadtregionen’) is a good example of successful integration work. Researchers from a number of different disciplines, as well as planners from two model cities, formed the research group CITY:mobil and cooperated within this project to develop innovative research methods, on the one hand, and planning tools aimed at a more sustainable mobility in cities, on the other. The project was designed to integrate planning and technical aspects as well as economic, ecological and social goals. Thus, the rather complex task of knowledge integration and social integration by the project team was one of the central challenges within the research process. Therefore, after introducing the details of this specific research project, we conclude with a universal model for a transdisciplinary research process. This model can support researchers in planning and conducting the complex integration demands to meet the dual targets of integrated research results for the area of interest (i.e. the societal problems being the starting point of the research project), and of new interdisciplinary or disciplinary results (e.g. methods, concepts and theories).
Matthias Bergmann; Thomas Jahn. CITY:mobil: A Model for Integration in Sustainability Research. Handbook of Transdisciplinary Research 2007, 89 -102.
AMA StyleMatthias Bergmann, Thomas Jahn. CITY:mobil: A Model for Integration in Sustainability Research. Handbook of Transdisciplinary Research. 2007; ():89-102.
Chicago/Turabian StyleMatthias Bergmann; Thomas Jahn. 2007. "CITY:mobil: A Model for Integration in Sustainability Research." Handbook of Transdisciplinary Research , no. : 89-102.
T. Jahn. Soziale Ökologie, kognitive Integration und Transdisziplinarität. TATuP - Zeitschrift für Technikfolgenabschätzung in Theorie und Praxis 2005, 14, 32 -38.
AMA StyleT. Jahn. Soziale Ökologie, kognitive Integration und Transdisziplinarität. TATuP - Zeitschrift für Technikfolgenabschätzung in Theorie und Praxis. 2005; 14 (2):32-38.
Chicago/Turabian StyleT. Jahn. 2005. "Soziale Ökologie, kognitive Integration und Transdisziplinarität." TATuP - Zeitschrift für Technikfolgenabschätzung in Theorie und Praxis 14, no. 2: 32-38.
T. Jahn; E. Sons. Der neue Förderschwerpunkt "Sozial-ökologische Forschung" des BMBF. TATuP - Zeitschrift für Technikfolgenabschätzung in Theorie und Praxis 2001, 10, 90 -97.
AMA StyleT. Jahn, E. Sons. Der neue Förderschwerpunkt "Sozial-ökologische Forschung" des BMBF. TATuP - Zeitschrift für Technikfolgenabschätzung in Theorie und Praxis. 2001; 10 (4):90-97.
Chicago/Turabian StyleT. Jahn; E. Sons. 2001. "Der neue Förderschwerpunkt "Sozial-ökologische Forschung" des BMBF." TATuP - Zeitschrift für Technikfolgenabschätzung in Theorie und Praxis 10, no. 4: 90-97.
Thomas Jahn. Urban ecology — perspectives of social‐ecological urban research. Capitalism Nature Socialism 1996, 7, 95 -101.
AMA StyleThomas Jahn. Urban ecology — perspectives of social‐ecological urban research. Capitalism Nature Socialism. 1996; 7 (2):95-101.
Chicago/Turabian StyleThomas Jahn. 1996. "Urban ecology — perspectives of social‐ecological urban research." Capitalism Nature Socialism 7, no. 2: 95-101.