The fungus “Fuling” has been used in Chinese traditional medicine for more than 2000 years, and its sclerotia have a wide range of biological activities including antitumour, immunomodulation, anti-inflammation, antioxidation, anti-aging etc. This prized medicinal mushroom also known as “Hoelen” is resurrected from a piece of pre-Linnean scientific literature. Fries treated it as Pachyma hoelen Fr. and mentioned that it was cultivated on pine trees in China. However, this name had been almost forgotten, and Poria cocos (syn. Wolfiporia cocos), originally described from North America, and known as “Tuckahoe” has been applied to “Fuling” in most publications. Although Merrill mentioned a 100 years ago that Asian Pachyma hoelen and North American P. cocos are similar but different, no comprehensive taxonomical studies have been carried out on the East Asian Pachyma hoelen and its related species. Based on phylogenetic analyses and morphological examination on both the sclerotia and the basidiocarps which are very seldomly developed, the East Asian samples of Pachyma hoelen including sclerotia, commercial strains for cultivation and fruiting bodies, nested in a strongly supported, homogeneous lineage which clearly separated from the lineages of North American Wolfiporia cocos and other species. So we confirm that the widely cultivated “Fuling” Pachyma hoelen in East Asia is not conspecific with the North American Wolfiporia cocos. Based on the changes in Art. 59 of the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants, the generic name Pachyma, which was sanctioned by Fries, has nomenclatural priority (ICN, Art. F.3.1), and this name well represents the economically important stage of the generic type. So we propose to use Pachyma rather than Wolfiporia, and subsequently Pachyma hoelen and Pachyma cocos are the valid names for “Fuling” in East Asia and “Tuckahoe” in North America, respectively. In addition, a new combination, Pachyma pseudococos, is proposed. Furthermore, it seems that Pachyma cocos is a species complex, and that three species exist in North America.

Outbreaks of cobweb disease are becoming increasingly prevalent globally, severely affecting the quality and yield of Agaricus bisporus. However, cobweb disease-resistant strains are rare, and little is known regarding the biocontrol management of the disease. Here, we isolated a pathogen from a severe outbreak of cobweb disease on A. bisporus in China and identified it as Cladobotryum mycophilum based on morphological characteristics, rDNA sequences, and pathogenicity tests. We then tested 30 A. bisporus strains for cobweb disease resistance by inoculating with C. mycophilum and evaluated the activity of different botanicals. We found that two wild strains of A. bisporus originating from the Tibetan Plateau in China were resistant to cobweb disease, and four commercial strains were susceptible. Yield comparisons of the inoculated and uninoculated strains of A. bisporus with C. mycophilum revealed yield losses of 6–38%. We found that seven botanicals could inhibit C. mycophilum growth in vitro, particularly Syzygium aromaticum, which exhibited the maximum inhibition (99.48%) and could thus be used for the further biocontrol of cobweb disease. Finally, we identified the bioactive chemical constituents present in S. aromaticum that could potentially be used as a treatment for C. mycophilum infection using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. These findings provide new germplasm resources for enhancing A. bisporus breeding and for the identification of botanicals for the biocontrol of cobweb disease.

Sclerotia of Wolfiporia hoelen are one of the most important traditional Chinese medicines and are commonly used in China, Japan, Korea, and other Asian countries. In the present study, we presented the first high-quality homokaryotic genome of W. hoelen with 14 chromosomes which was evaluated with assembly index, telomere position detection, and whole-genome collinearity. A 64.44 Mb genome was assembled with a Contig N50 length of 3.76 Mb. The imbalanced distribution of transposons and chromosome characters revealed the probable two-speed genome of W. hoelen. High consistency between methylation and transposon conserved the genome stability. The expansion of the gene family about signal transduction and nutritional transport has intimate relationships with sclerotial formation. Up-regulation of expression for distinctive decomposition enzymes, ROS clearance genes, biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acids, and change of the cell wall components maintained high-speed growth of mycelia that may be the high-temperature adaption strategy of W. hoelen. Further, the analysis of mating-control genes demonstrated that HD3 probably had no function on mating recognition, with the HD protein in a distant genetic with known species. Overall, the high-quality genome of W. hoelen provided crucial information for genome structure and stability, high-temperature adaption, and sexual and asexual process.

Polyporus umbellatus is a species whose sclerotia have been extensively employed in traditional Chinese medicine, which has diuretic, antitumor, anticancer, and immune system enhancement properties. However, prolonged asexual reproduction has resulted in significant homogenization and degeneration of seed sclerotia. In contrast, sexual reproduction has emerged as an effective strategy to address these challenges, with a distinct mating system serving as the foundation for the implementation of sexual breeding. This study presents the first sequencing and assembly of the genome of P. umbellatus, thereby providing an opportunity to investigate the mating system at the genomic level. Based on the annotated mating-type loci within the genome, monokaryotic offspring exhibiting different mating-types were identified. Through the integration of traditional mating tests, the tetrapolar mating system of P. umbellatus was distinctly elucidated. The resequencing of monokaryotic strains with four different mating-types, along with comparative analyses of mating-type loci, revealed the HD1 and HD2 (HD, homeodomain) genes determined the mating A types, and the PR4, PR5, and PR6 (PR, pheromone receptor) genes determined the mating B types. Meanwhile, this study offers a successful case study in the molecular investigation of mating systems. Additionally, the number of sterigma and basidiospores on each basidium was examined using scanning electron microscopy, while the nuclei of basidiospores and basidia at various developmental stages were analyzed through DAPI staining. This research clarifies the heterothallic life cycle of P. umbellatus. The findings of this study are expected to facilitate advancements in genetic research, breeding development, strain improvement, and the industry of P. umbellatus.

The sclerotia of Pachyma hoelen are one of the traditional Chinese medicines and foods that are widely used in East Asian countries. The strains used for cultivation showed bad performance in recent years, and breeding of superior strains has become increasingly important for this fungus. Nevertheless, the mating system and life cycle of P. hoelen were still ambiguous. In this study, the methods for distinguishing between homokaryotic offspring with different mating types were established, as well as confirmation of strain hybridization based on allelic polymorphism at a locus of the rpb2 gene. The bipolar mating system was confirmed according to the mating results of homokaryotic SSIs. The fact that heterokaryotic parents produce homokaryotic meiospores proves that the life cycle is heterothallic. Combining scanning electron microscope observation and DAPI (4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole) fluorescent staining of hymenium and basidiospores in situ and ex situ, nuclear migration pattern from basidia to spores was revealed. The heterothallic life cycle was verified, revised, and supplemented step by step. This is the first report of systematic research on the mating system, life cycle, and outcrossing of homokaryotic offspring in P. hoelen. It will be helpful for the biological research, strain improvement, and development of the P. hoelen industry.

Polyporus umbellatus is a medicinal fungus primarily used for diuresis, with its sclerotium serving as the medicinal component. The growth and development of sclerotia are reliant on a symbiotic relationship with Armillaria. However, the impact of different Armillaria species on the yield and quality of sclerotia remains unclear. In this study, three Armillaria strains, A35, A541, and A19, were identified through TEF-1α sequence analysis and phylogenetic classification. These strains were classified into three distinct species: A35 as A. ostoyae, A541 as A. gallica, while the taxonomic status of A19 remains unresolved. After four years of co-cultivation with these Armillaria strains, three groups of P. umbellatus sclerotia were harvested and labeled as A35-P, A541-P, and A19-P, respectively. The yields of A35-P, A541-P, and A19-P exhibited significant variations, with A541-P achieving the highest yield (1221 ± 258 g·nest⁻¹), followed by A35-P (979 ± 201 g·nest⁻¹), and A19-P yielding the least (591 ± 54 g·nest⁻¹). HPLC revealed significant differences in the levels of polyporusterone A and polyporusterone B among the groups. The total polysaccharide content, determined via the phenol-sulfuric acid method, also varied significantly, with A541-P recording the highest content (0.897 ± 0.042%), followed by A19-P (0.686 ± 0.058%), and A35-P showing the lowest value (0.511 ± 0.083%). PCA based on these data indicated clear distinctions among A35-P, A541-P, and A19-P, with the three groups forming separate clusters. This study, for the first time, demonstrates the effects of three different Armillaria species on the yield and active compound content of P. umbellatus. These findings provide valuable insights for selecting high-quality Armillaria strains and offer guidance for the artificial cultivation of P. umbellatus.