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Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) follows a transparent and structured process for a decision making by considering multiple criteria, whereas sustainability assessment requires to manage and assess multidimensional indicators. Hence, the procedures of MCDA can be useful to assess sustainability. In this chapter, to understand the applicability of MCDA for sustainability assessment the concept, procedure, strength and weakness, and classification of MCDA as well as suitability and the steps require to follow in using MCDA technique for sustainability assessment are discussed. Two case studies of the application of MCDA techniques for sustainability assessment are shown and their advantage and disadvantage are presented with a direction of further research.
Byomkesh Talukder; Keith W. Hipel. Review and Selection of Multi-criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) Technique for Sustainability Assessment. Smart and Sustainable Planning for Cities and Regions 2021, 145 -160.
AMA StyleByomkesh Talukder, Keith W. Hipel. Review and Selection of Multi-criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) Technique for Sustainability Assessment. Smart and Sustainable Planning for Cities and Regions. 2021; ():145-160.
Chicago/Turabian StyleByomkesh Talukder; Keith W. Hipel. 2021. "Review and Selection of Multi-criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) Technique for Sustainability Assessment." Smart and Sustainable Planning for Cities and Regions , no. : 145-160.
The health of smallholder farmers is crucial for ensuring food and nutritional security for two billion people. However, their health is in jeopardy for several reasons including challenges from climate change impacts. Using a narrative literature review supported by field observations and informal interviews with key informants in India, Bangladesh and Malawi, this paper identifies and discusses the health impacts of climate change under four categories: (i) communicable diseases, (ii) non-communicable diseases, (iii) mental health, and (iv) occupational health, safety and other health issues. The health impacts of climate change on smallholder farmers will hamper the realization of many of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals, and a series of recommendations are made to regional and country governments to address the increasing health impacts of accelerating climate change among smallholder farmers.
Byomkesh Talukder; Gary W. van Loon; Keith W. Hipel; Sosten Chiotha; James Orbinski. Health impacts of climate change on smallholder farmers. One Health 2021, 13, 100258 .
AMA StyleByomkesh Talukder, Gary W. van Loon, Keith W. Hipel, Sosten Chiotha, James Orbinski. Health impacts of climate change on smallholder farmers. One Health. 2021; 13 ():100258.
Chicago/Turabian StyleByomkesh Talukder; Gary W. van Loon; Keith W. Hipel; Sosten Chiotha; James Orbinski. 2021. "Health impacts of climate change on smallholder farmers." One Health 13, no. : 100258.
Reporting discrepancies between officially confirmed COVID-19 death counts and unreported COVID-19–like illness (CLI) death counts have been evident across the world, including Bangladesh. Publicly available data were used to explore the differences between confirmed COVID-19 death counts and deaths with possible COVID-19 symptoms between March 2, 2020 and August 22, 2020. Unreported CLI death counts totaled more than half of the confirmed COVID-19 death counts during the study period. However, the reporting authority did not consider CLI deaths, which might produce incomplete and unreliable COVID-19 data and respective mortality rates. All deaths with possible COVID-19 symptoms need to be included in provisional death counts to better estimate the COVID-19 mortality rate and to develop data-driven COVID-19 response strategies. An urgent initiative is needed to prepare a comprehensive guideline for reporting COVID-19 deaths.
Mazbahul G. Ahamad; Fahian Tanin; Byomkesh Talukder; Monir U. Ahmed. Officially Confirmed COVID-19 and Unreported COVID-19–Like Illness Death Counts: An Assessment of Reporting Discrepancy in Bangladesh. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2021, 104, 546 -548.
AMA StyleMazbahul G. Ahamad, Fahian Tanin, Byomkesh Talukder, Monir U. Ahmed. Officially Confirmed COVID-19 and Unreported COVID-19–Like Illness Death Counts: An Assessment of Reporting Discrepancy in Bangladesh. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 2021; 104 (2):546-548.
Chicago/Turabian StyleMazbahul G. Ahamad; Fahian Tanin; Byomkesh Talukder; Monir U. Ahmed. 2021. "Officially Confirmed COVID-19 and Unreported COVID-19–Like Illness Death Counts: An Assessment of Reporting Discrepancy in Bangladesh." The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 104, no. 2: 546-548.
With many countries integrating the Sustainable Development Goals into their national budgetary processes, there is a need for decision support to enhance decision-making pertaining to the implications of national budgets on the Sustainable Development Goals. An approach to decision support for integrating Sustainable Development Goals’ investment into resources allocation processes is proposed. Expanding on an existing values-based decision support system, the proposed framework captures synergies and trade-offs in the Sustainable Development Goals for efficient and purposeful budgetary planning. The proposed decision support system is presented and illustrated with a hypothetical example situated in Bangladesh.
Simone Philpot; Byomkesh Talukder; Keith Hipel. Decision-making Tool for Allocating Resources to Achieve Sustainable Development Goals. 2020 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (SMC) 2020, 1341 -1347.
AMA StyleSimone Philpot, Byomkesh Talukder, Keith Hipel. Decision-making Tool for Allocating Resources to Achieve Sustainable Development Goals. 2020 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (SMC). 2020; ():1341-1347.
Chicago/Turabian StyleSimone Philpot; Byomkesh Talukder; Keith Hipel. 2020. "Decision-making Tool for Allocating Resources to Achieve Sustainable Development Goals." 2020 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (SMC) , no. : 1341-1347.
Migrant workers play a significant role in the economy of Bangladesh, pumping approximately USD15 billion into the economy that directly contributes to the socio-economic development of Bangladesh every year. These workers and their dependents are in a socially vulnerable and economically difficult situation due to the dire impacts of the COVID-19. Migrant workers from Bangladesh in other countries are facing adverse impacts such as unemployment, short working hours, isolation, poor quality of living, social discrimination and mental pressure while their dependents at home are facing financial crisis due to the limited or reduced cash flow from their working relatives. A significant number of migrant workers have been sent back to Bangladesh and many are in constant fear of being sent back due to the impacts of COVID-19 in their host countries. Thus, COVID-19 intensifies numerous socio-economic crises such as joblessness, consumption of reserve funds by family members, and shrinking of the country’s remittance inflow. In this situation, the most urgent and important need is to give financial security and social safety to the workers abroad and those who have returned to Bangladesh. Apart from diplomatic endeavors to maintain the status quo of policy, the government of Bangladesh may take initiatives to provide financial support to these workers as a short-term strategy to overcome hardships during the pandemic and design a comprehensive plan with a detailed database of all migrant workers to create a need-based and skilled workforce as a long-term solution. These strategies can mitigate the impacts of COVID-19 at present and address migration related problems in future.
Mohammad Rezaul Karim; Mohammad Tarikul Islam; Byomkesh Talukder. COVID-19′s impacts on migrant workers from Bangladesh: In search of policy intervention. World Development 2020, 136, 105123 -105123.
AMA StyleMohammad Rezaul Karim, Mohammad Tarikul Islam, Byomkesh Talukder. COVID-19′s impacts on migrant workers from Bangladesh: In search of policy intervention. World Development. 2020; 136 ():105123-105123.
Chicago/Turabian StyleMohammad Rezaul Karim; Mohammad Tarikul Islam; Byomkesh Talukder. 2020. "COVID-19′s impacts on migrant workers from Bangladesh: In search of policy intervention." World Development 136, no. : 105123-105123.
The sustainability of agricultural systems is of paramount concern in order to ensure the survival and wellbeing of humans throughout the world. Sustainability is a complex issue involving multiple factors that fit broadly within economic, social and environmental areas. Given its complexity, this paper examines the question of how sustainability can be assessed in a way that gives a holistic picture of the separate and interrelated factors. The paper then presents a literature review, field experience and the use of complex adaptive systems to identify the issues and concerns that need to be addressed during agricultural sustainability assessment and categorizes them into in seven groups: integration of capitals; maintaining resilience, adaptation and transformation; ensuring system performance; involving stakeholders; mixing interdisciplinary views; integration of scales; and practicing good governance. Based on these issues and concerns, a set of indicators are suggested that will assist with holistic agricultural sustainability assessment in a given area.
Byomkesh Talukder; Alison Blay-Palmer; Gary W. Vanloon; Keith W. Hipel. Towards complexity of agricultural sustainability assessment: Main issues and concerns. Environmental and Sustainability Indicators 2020, 6, 100038 .
AMA StyleByomkesh Talukder, Alison Blay-Palmer, Gary W. Vanloon, Keith W. Hipel. Towards complexity of agricultural sustainability assessment: Main issues and concerns. Environmental and Sustainability Indicators. 2020; 6 ():100038.
Chicago/Turabian StyleByomkesh Talukder; Alison Blay-Palmer; Gary W. Vanloon; Keith W. Hipel. 2020. "Towards complexity of agricultural sustainability assessment: Main issues and concerns." Environmental and Sustainability Indicators 6, no. : 100038.
Trans-boundary water governance is crucial for addressing water-related issues caused by a growing population in combination with increasing demand, human intervention, conflict and above all climate change impacts on water resources. A literature review demonstrates that there is indeed a positive relationship between governance and the mitigation of tensions and meeting of sustainability goals in a given basin. Understanding the impacts of trans-boundary water governance from a sustainability perspective is very important. In this paper, Gibson’s Sustainability Criteria are used to assess the sustainability performance of the trans-boundary water governance in the Great Lakes basin. The findings reveal that the trans-boundary water governance in this region is particularly weak in addressing Gibson’s Sustainability Criteria factors of Intra-Generational Equity, Inter-Generational Equity, Precautionary and Adaptation, and Immediate and Long-Term Integration but successful in fostering Livelihood Sufficiency and Opportunity, Resource Maintenance and Efficiency, Principle of Democracy and Civility and many aspects of Socio-Ecological System Integrity. It is expected that the findings of this study will have implications for understanding the sustainability of present and future trans-boundary water governance around the world.
Byomkesh Talukder; Keith W. Hipel. Diagnosis of sustainability of trans-boundary water governance in the Great Lakes basin. World Development 2020, 129, 104855 .
AMA StyleByomkesh Talukder, Keith W. Hipel. Diagnosis of sustainability of trans-boundary water governance in the Great Lakes basin. World Development. 2020; 129 ():104855.
Chicago/Turabian StyleByomkesh Talukder; Keith W. Hipel. 2020. "Diagnosis of sustainability of trans-boundary water governance in the Great Lakes basin." World Development 129, no. : 104855.
Indicators for energy-use efficiency and levels of CO2 emissions were used to evaluate and compare a range of agricultural systems in coastal Bangladesh in order to identify the most energy efficient system. Using data collected by the authors, five different food production systems involving both agriculture and aquaculture in the coastal area of Bangladesh were studied. In particular, Bagda (shrimp), Bagda-rice, rice, Galda (prawn)-rice-vegetable, and traditional practice-based agricultural systems were thoroughly investigated. The findings revealed that the Galda (prawn)-rice-vegetable-based integrated agricultural system was the most energy-efficient system and released less CO2 than the other four systems.
Byomkesh Talukder; Gary W. Vanloon; Keith W. Hipel. Energy efficiency of agricultural systems in the southwest coastal zone of Bangladesh. Ecological Indicators 2018, 98, 641 -648.
AMA StyleByomkesh Talukder, Gary W. Vanloon, Keith W. Hipel. Energy efficiency of agricultural systems in the southwest coastal zone of Bangladesh. Ecological Indicators. 2018; 98 ():641-648.
Chicago/Turabian StyleByomkesh Talukder; Gary W. Vanloon; Keith W. Hipel. 2018. "Energy efficiency of agricultural systems in the southwest coastal zone of Bangladesh." Ecological Indicators 98, no. : 641-648.
The PROMETHEE (Preference Ranking Organization Method for Enrichment Evaluation) method is applied to five different types of agricultural systems in coastal Bangladesh in order to rank the alternatives from most to least suitable according to a range of sustainability indicators. More specifically, composite indicators from six sustainability categories—productivity, stability, efficiency, durability, compatibility, and equity—are used for this assessment. The case study demonstrates that PROMETHEE constitutes a flexible MCDA (Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis) tool to investigate the sustainability of agricultural systems, rank the different alternative systems, and provide valuable insights.
Byomkesh Talukder; Keith W. Hipel. The PROMETHEE Framework for Comparing the Sustainability of Agricultural Systems. Resources 2018, 7, 74 .
AMA StyleByomkesh Talukder, Keith W. Hipel. The PROMETHEE Framework for Comparing the Sustainability of Agricultural Systems. Resources. 2018; 7 (4):74.
Chicago/Turabian StyleByomkesh Talukder; Keith W. Hipel. 2018. "The PROMETHEE Framework for Comparing the Sustainability of Agricultural Systems." Resources 7, no. 4: 74.
Composite indicators for six key categories of agricultural sustainability are utilized within a Multi‐Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) structure to assess and compare the sustainability of different agricultural systems. Individual indicators – productivity, stability, efficiency, durability, compatibility and equity – were used to develop composite indicators. In this research, the major steps used to obtain the aggregated indicators and assess sustainability are: define sustainability; recognize sustainability issues; identify indicators; categorize sustainability; measure indicator values to develop composite indicators; give weighting to the categories of sustainability; aggregate composite indicators; and compare the sustainability of different agricultural systems. Using composite indicators, an MCDA structure is employed to evaluate and rank the agricultural systems of southwest coastal Bangladesh in terms of the level of agricultural sustainability of each one. The case study demonstrates that this MCDA approach has the potential to become a useful framework for agricultural sustainability assessment.
Byomkesh Talukder; Keith W. Hipel; Gary W. Vanloon. Using multi-criteria decision analysis for assessing sustainability of agricultural systems. Sustainable Development 2018, 26, 781 -799.
AMA StyleByomkesh Talukder, Keith W. Hipel, Gary W. Vanloon. Using multi-criteria decision analysis for assessing sustainability of agricultural systems. Sustainable Development. 2018; 26 (6):781-799.
Chicago/Turabian StyleByomkesh Talukder; Keith W. Hipel; Gary W. Vanloon. 2018. "Using multi-criteria decision analysis for assessing sustainability of agricultural systems." Sustainable Development 26, no. 6: 781-799.
The assessment of the sustainability of agricultural systems is multidimensional in nature and requires holistic measures using indicators with different measurements and units reflecting social, economic, and environmental aspects. To simplify the assessment process, various indicators have different units, and measurements are grouped under broad indicator heads, and normalization and/or transformation processes are carried out in order to aggregate them. In this study, a total of 50 indicators from agricultural sustainability categories of productivity, stability, efficiency, durability, compatibility, and equity are employed to investigate which normalization technique is the most suitable for further mathematical analysis for developing a final composite indicator. To understand the consistency and quality of normalization measurement techniques and compare the benefits and drawbacks of the various selected normalization processes, the indicators of agricultural sustainability are considered. Each of the different techniques for normalization has advantages and drawbacks. This study shows that the proportionate normalization and hybrid aggregation rules of the arithmetic mean and the geometric mean are appropriate for the selected data set, and that this technique has a wider applicability for developing composite indicators for agricultural sustainability assessment.
Byomkesh Talukder; Keith W. Hipel; Gary W. VanLoon. Developing Composite Indicators for Agricultural Sustainability Assessment: Effect of Normalization and Aggregation Techniques. Resources 2017, 6, 66 .
AMA StyleByomkesh Talukder, Keith W. Hipel, Gary W. VanLoon. Developing Composite Indicators for Agricultural Sustainability Assessment: Effect of Normalization and Aggregation Techniques. Resources. 2017; 6 (4):66.
Chicago/Turabian StyleByomkesh Talukder; Keith W. Hipel; Gary W. VanLoon. 2017. "Developing Composite Indicators for Agricultural Sustainability Assessment: Effect of Normalization and Aggregation Techniques." Resources 6, no. 4: 66.
Methods for agricultural sustainability assessment require the management of a wide variety of information types, parameters and uncertainties. Nevertheless, many methodologies have been developed and applied for agricultural sustainability assessment. Here the following holistic methods were compared: the Response-Inducing Sustainability Evaluation model (RISE), Sustainability Assessment of Farming and the Environment (SAFE), the IDEA method (Indicateurs de Durabilité des Exploitations Agricoles or Farm Sustainability Indicators), Monitoring Tool for Integrated Farm Sustainability (MOTIFS), Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA), Integrated assessment of agricultural systems, a component-based framework for the European Union (SEAMLESS), the MESMIS program, and acronym for Indicator-based Sustainability Assessment Framework, and Sustainability Assessment of Food and Agriculture Systems (SAFA). The effectiveness of the methodologies was compared in terms of scientific soundness, feasibility, utility, influence, spatial applicability and adaptability. In terms of effectiveness, the performance of RISE is the best, but when scientific soundness issues are considered, MCDA-based assessment is the preferred choice. All the methodologies have some specificity based on how they were created and their spatial applicability.
Byomkesh Talukder; Alison Blay-Palmer. Comparison of Methods to Assess Agricultural Sustainability. Sustainable Agriculture Reviews 2017, 149 -168.
AMA StyleByomkesh Talukder, Alison Blay-Palmer. Comparison of Methods to Assess Agricultural Sustainability. Sustainable Agriculture Reviews. 2017; ():149-168.
Chicago/Turabian StyleByomkesh Talukder; Alison Blay-Palmer. 2017. "Comparison of Methods to Assess Agricultural Sustainability." Sustainable Agriculture Reviews , no. : 149-168.
In the present world context, there is a need to assess the sustainability of agricultural systems. Various methods have been proposed to assess agricultural sustainability. Like in many other fields, Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) has recently been used as a methodological approach for the assessment of agricultural sustainability. In this paper, an attempt is made to apply Elimination, a MCDA method, to an agricultural sustainability assessment, and to investigate its benefits and drawbacks. This article starts by explaining the importance of agricultural sustainability. Common MCDA types are discussed, with a description of the state-of-the-art method for incorporating multi-criteria and reference values for agricultural sustainability assessment. Then, a generic description of the Elimination Method is provided, and its modeling approach is applied to a case study in coastal Bangladesh. An assessment of the results is provided, and the issues that need consideration before applying Elimination to agricultural sustainability, are examined. Whilst having some limitations, the case study shows that it is applicable for agricultural sustainability assessments and for ranking the sustainability of agricultural systems. The assessment is quick compared to other assessment methods and is shown to be helpful for agricultural sustainability assessment. It is a relatively simple and straightforward analytical tool that could be widely and easily applied. However, it is suggested that appropriate care must be taken to ensure the successful use of the Elimination Method during the assessment process.
Byomkesh Talukder; Alison Blay-Palmer; Keith W. Hipel; Gary W. VanLoon. Elimination Method of Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA): A Simple Methodological Approach for Assessing Agricultural Sustainability. Sustainability 2017, 9, 287 .
AMA StyleByomkesh Talukder, Alison Blay-Palmer, Keith W. Hipel, Gary W. VanLoon. Elimination Method of Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA): A Simple Methodological Approach for Assessing Agricultural Sustainability. Sustainability. 2017; 9 (2):287.
Chicago/Turabian StyleByomkesh Talukder; Alison Blay-Palmer; Keith W. Hipel; Gary W. VanLoon. 2017. "Elimination Method of Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA): A Simple Methodological Approach for Assessing Agricultural Sustainability." Sustainability 9, no. 2: 287.
Health status of landscape ecology is one of the most important sustainability issues. Health status of landscape ecology is defined by many criteria and is the reflection of the overall aggregated impacts of the criteria. To understand the status of the health of a landscape, a holistic evaluation framework is required that is capable to show the impacts of the criteria separate and aggregated. Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis is a framework that can fulfill the requirement of a holistic framework. To assess applicability and understand the process of the evaluation using MCDA in this paper, some criteria are selected and a hypothetical set of data of those criteria is used. The hypothetical case study shows that MCDA is capable to assess health impacts of landscape ecology by combining different criteria. However, to understand the process and advantage and disadvantage of the MCDA framework for evaluation of the health status of a landscape, a real case study is recommended for future study.
Byomkesh Talukder. Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) Technique for Evaluating Health Status of Landscape Ecology. Landscape Ecology for Sustainable Society 2017, 39 -49.
AMA StyleByomkesh Talukder. Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) Technique for Evaluating Health Status of Landscape Ecology. Landscape Ecology for Sustainable Society. 2017; ():39-49.
Chicago/Turabian StyleByomkesh Talukder. 2017. "Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) Technique for Evaluating Health Status of Landscape Ecology." Landscape Ecology for Sustainable Society , no. : 39-49.
Transformations of the agricultural systems have been taking place in the coastal zone of Bangladesh. In different settings, farmers have become involved in massive shrimp cultivation, shrimp–rice cultivation, rice-based improved agricultural systems or shrimp–rice–vegetable-integrated systems. The long-term livelihood, food security and adaptation of the coastal people largely depend on the sustainability of these agricultural practices. In this context, assessing the level of sustainability is extremely important. The present study attempts to examine the sustainability of agricultural practices in the coastal zone of Bangladesh. A field study was carried out in fiveupazilas(counties) in the coastal zone. The data were collected through in-depth questionnaire surveys, focus groups discussions, field observation, key informants and secondary materials. A comprehensive suite of indicators was developed considering productivity, efficiency, stability, durability, compatibility and equity related to the coastal agriculture. The categories and the indicators were aggregated using Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis to measure the sustainability level of five study sites. The integrated agricultural system (shrimp–rice–vegetables) of Dumuria appeared to be the most sustainable system among agricultural practices, and other integrated systems (rice-based) of Kalaroa were also found to show a good level of sustainability. The massive shrimp cultivation system of Shyamnagar and Kaliganj appears to be the least sustainable. A traditional agriculture system with some improved methods followed in Bhola Sadar also performed in a satisfactory manner. Measuring agricultural sustainability in this way produces a useful summary of sustainability issues. The information generated from the study may be used in formulating policies for this part of the country. The holistic and interdisciplinary approach employed here has the potential to a useful framework for sustainability assessment.
Byomkesh Talukder; Saifuzzaman; G.W. Vanloon. Sustainability of agricultural systems in the coastal zone of Bangladesh. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 2015, 31, 148 -165.
AMA StyleByomkesh Talukder, Saifuzzaman, G.W. Vanloon. Sustainability of agricultural systems in the coastal zone of Bangladesh. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems. 2015; 31 (2):148-165.
Chicago/Turabian StyleByomkesh Talukder; Saifuzzaman; G.W. Vanloon. 2015. "Sustainability of agricultural systems in the coastal zone of Bangladesh." Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 31, no. 2: 148-165.
Despite recent progress shown by some of the indicators of Millennium DevelopmentGoals in Bangladesh, the nutritional status among all children of the country is notso satisfactory. Growing evidence suggest that there exist regional differences in childunder-nutrition in Bangladesh. The present article is an attempt to identify the regionaldifferences of child under-nutrition across six divisions of Bangladesh and to understandsome of the determinants of under-nutrition using DHS-2007 Bangladesh dat. This datafocus on under-nutrition and some of the determinants related to household, child andmother. A multivariate model was employed to study the regional differences of undernutritionstatus among children. Across the divisions, a variation of under-nutrition isobserved among the children. The prevalence of under-nutrition is statistically significantin poor households. Economics status, mothers’ education, children’s age, number of familymembers and duration of breastfeeding are important determinants of under-nutritionacross divisions. Child under-nutrition in Bangladesh is still a concern for the householdwith poor economic status. The article calls for improvement of the economic status of thehouseholds across divisions keeping in view the nature of inequality in childhood undernutritionin the country and its differential characteristics across the divisions.
Byomkesh Talukder. Regional Differences of Child Under-Nutrition in Bangladesh. Finnish Yearbook of Population Research 2013, 48, 189 -201.
AMA StyleByomkesh Talukder. Regional Differences of Child Under-Nutrition in Bangladesh. Finnish Yearbook of Population Research. 2013; 48 ():189-201.
Chicago/Turabian StyleByomkesh Talukder. 2013. "Regional Differences of Child Under-Nutrition in Bangladesh." Finnish Yearbook of Population Research 48, no. : 189-201.