This study aimed to determine the effects of a virtual reality exercise program based on cognitive function and social skills on motor coordination in children with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD). Thirty-five children with IDD were randomly assigned to either the cognitive function and social skills-based virtual reality exercise system (CS-VR) group or the conventional virtual reality exercise system (C-VR) group. Before and after the intervention, each participant was tested for motor coordination (extended horizontal jump, hop, stationary dribble, overarm throw) and exercise performance (standing long jump, YMCA step test). Compared with the C-VR group, the CS-VR group showed significant improvements in motor coordination in terms of extended horizontal jump, hop, and overarm throw (p < 0.01, p < 0.05, and p < 0.01, respectively). In addition, compared with the C-VR group, the CS-VR group showed a significant increase in standing long jump (p < 0.01), although no significant between-group variation was found in stationary dribble and recovery heart rate (RHR) as part of the YMCA step test (p > 0.05, and p > 0.05, respectively). These results suggest that for the development of motor skills in children with IDD, it is essential to develop an exercise program that reflects the levels of cognitive functions and social skills of these children.

Many people, although they may recognise the positive effects of exercise, do not exercise regularly owing to lack of time. This study aimed to investigate the effects of prolonged single-session exercise and multiple short sessions of exercise on the risk of metabolic syndrome and the atherogenic index in middle-aged obese women. Thirty-six participants were divided into the single-session group, multiple-session group, and control group. The single-session group engaged in one session of treadmill exercise for 30 min a day; the multiple-session group had three sessions of 10 min a day. Both groups exercised 3 days/week for 12 weeks. The control group did not perform any exercise. The single-session group showed decreases in weight (0.97 kg [95% C.I. = 0.09–1.83], p < .05), body mass index (0.43 kg/m2 [95% C.I. = 0.03–0.81], p < .05), and fat mass (1.65 kg, [95% C.I. = 0.78–2.51], p < .01). Systolic blood pressure dropped in the single-session group (6.66 mmHg, [95% C.I. = 1.44–11.88], p < .05), and diastolic blood pressure dropped in the multiple-session group (3.38 mmHg, [95% C.I. = 1.44–5.88], p < .01). High-density lipoprotein cholesterol rose in the single-session group (4.08 mg/dL, [95% C.I. = −8.08–(−)0.07], p < .05) and dropped in the control group (10.75 mg/dL [95% C.I. = 1.95–19.54], p < .01). According to post hoc analysis, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol increased more in the single-session group than the control group (95% C.I. = 0.61–21.88, p < .05). Glucose levels decreased in both the single-session group (16 mg/dL [95% C.I. = 5.64–26.35], p < .01) and the multiple-session group (12.16 mg/dL, [95% C.I. = 2.18–22.14], p < .05). Waist circumference decreased in the single-session group (2.65 cm [95% C.I. = 1.46–3.83], p < .001) and multiple-session group (2.04 cm, [95% C.I. = 1.51–2.73], p < .001). Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels rose in both the multiple-session group (−15.79 mg/dL [95% C.I. = −34.24–(−)3.78], p < .05) and the control group (−22.94 mg/dL [95% C.I. = −44.63–(−)1.24], p < .05). The atherogenic index increased in the control group (−1.06 [95% C.I. = −1.69–(−)0.41], p < .01). The findings indicate that prolonged exercise is superior to multiple short sessions for improving the risk of metabolic syndrome and the atherogenic index in middle-aged obese women. However, multiple short sessions can be recommended as an alternative to prolonged exercise when the goal is to decrease blood glucose or waist circumference.