Cost-effective zones for the expansion of global terrestrial protected areas are identified.

Maintaining and improving the connectivity of protected areas (PAs) is essential for biodiversity conservation. The Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) aims to expand the coverage of well-connected PAs and other effective area-based conservation measures to 30% by 2030. We proposed a framework to evaluate the connectivity of PAs and developed strategies to maintain and improve the connectivity of PAs based on PA connectivity indicators, and we applied this framework to China’s terrestrial PAs. We considered that the concept of PA connectivity is at the level of both PA patches and PA networks, including four aspects: intra-patch connectivity, inter-patch connectivity, network connectivity, and PA–landscape connectivity. We found that among China’s 2153 terrestrial PA patches, only 427 had good intra-patch connectivity, and their total area accounted for 11.28% of China’s land area. If inter-patch connectivity, network connectivity, and PA–landscape connectivity were taken as the criteria to evaluate PA connectivity, respectively, then the coverage of well-connected terrestrial PAs in China was only 4.07%, 8.30%, and 5.92%, respectively. Only seven PA patches have good connectivity of all four aspects, covering only 2.69% of China’s land. The intra-patch, inter-patch, network, and PA–landscape connectivity of China’s terrestrial PA network reached 93.41%, 35.40%, 58.43%, and 8.58%, respectively. These conclusions indicated that there is still a big gap between China’s PA connectivity and the Post-2020 GBF target, which urgently needs to be improved. We identified PA patches and PA networks of ecological zones that need to improve PA connectivity and identified improvement priorities for them. We also identified priority areas for connectivity restoration in existing PAs, potential ecological corridors between PAs, and priority areas for PA expansion to improve the connectivity of PAs in China. Application of our framework elsewhere should help governments and policymakers reach ambitious biodiversity conservation goals at national and global scales.

Ensuring habitat representativeness is fundamental to area-based conservation, yet the effectiveness and efficiency of individual protected areas in meeting this goal remain underexamined, potentially impeding targeted strategies. Here we assessed habitat representativeness, representativeness contribution and representativeness density across China’s protected areas to evaluate their performance in meeting species conservation needs, using refined species distribution data. The overall network’s habitat representativeness was 62.39%, fully meeting conservation needs for 28.33% of species. Among them, 175 protected areas contributed over half of existing achievement for 751 species, including 148 fully dependent on one site, revealing uneven conservation efforts and species-site dependencies. While protected area size correlated with habitat representativeness and contribution, species richness also correlated with contribution and density, showing size alone may not determine efficiency. We then classified protected areas into four efficiency-based categories and proposed tailored strategies. Our metric-driven assessment provides a systematic approach to identifying gaps and optimizing conservation priorities at site level across the country.