This study examines the development trajectory and current trends of three-dimensional (3D) geological modelling. In recent years, due to the rising global energy demand and the increasing frequency of regional geological disasters, significant progress has been made in this field. The purpose of this study is to clarify the potential complexity of 3D geological modelling, identify persistent challenges, and propose potential avenues for improvement. The main objectives include simplifying the modelling process, improving model accuracy, integrating different data sources, and quantitatively evaluating model parameters. This study integrates global research in this field, focusing on the latest breakthroughs and applications in mineral exploration, engineering geology, geological disaster assessment, and military geosciences. For example, unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) tilt photography technology, multisource data fusion, 3D geological modelling method based on machine learning, etc. By identifying areas for improvement and making recommendations, this work aims to provide valuable insights to guide the future development of geological modelling toward a more comprehensive and accurate “Transparent Earth”. This review underscores the global applications of 3D geological modelling, highlighting its crucial role across various sectors such as mineral exploration, the oil and gas industry, urban planning, geological hazard assessment, and geoscientific research. The review emphasizes the sector-specific importance of this technology in enhancing modelling accuracy and efficiency, optimizing resource management, driving technological innovation, and improving disaster response capabilities. These insights provide a comprehensive understanding of how 3D geological modelling can significantly impact and benefit multiple industries worldwide.

The Tarim Block is an ancient plate with a basement of ancient continental crust, which has been separated from the Rodinia supercontinent since the Neoproterozoic. During the Neoproterozoic, which lasted nearly 500 Myr, this block experienced significant evolutionary processes, such as proliferation, radioactive decay of elements, and gradual cooling and solidification. The investigation of Neoproterozoic paleogeography may shed light on the evolution of these geological events. In order to realize this potential, this study aimed to infer paleowind directions over the Tarim Block during each epoch of the Cryogenian–Ediacaran and to constrain the paleogeographic location of the Tarim Block. To this end, outcrop magnetic fabric data were employed to analyze the anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility within the Tarim Block. The anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility measurements yielded mean paleowind directions of 308° ± 69°, 277° ± 78°, and 256° ± 76° from the present north for the Early, Middle, and Late Cryogenian, respectively; the corresponding values for the Early and Late Ediacaran were 237° ± 77° and 254° ± 73° from the present north, respectively. Considering the rotation relationship of the Tarim Block from the Neoproterozoic to the present, the paleowind directions during the Early, Middle, and Late Cryogenian were ~55°, ~35°, and ~35° from the paleo-north, respectively. The paleowind directions during the Early and Late Ediacaran were ~35° and ~60° from paleo-north, respectively. By referring to the correspondence between the paleowind directions over the Tarim Block and trade winds in the Northern Hemisphere, this study provides evidence for the location of the Tarim Block during the Cryogenian–Ediacaran. The main contributions of this study can be summarized as follows: (1) paleowind patterns are established through the analysis of the anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility; (2) the paleogeographic location of the Tarim Block during the Cryogenian–Ediacaran is constrained; and (3) a reference for further study of the paleogeography of the Tarim Block during the Cryogenian–Ediacaran is provided.

The Triassic Jiucaiyuan Formation is a vital oil and gas exploration target in the eastern part of the Junggar Basin. In this work, cores, thin sections, particle sizes, and conventional physical properties were analyzed in order to understand the sedimentary characteristics and depositional model of the Jiucaiyuan Formation in the Beisantai Uplift and to clarify the factors controlling reservoir development. The results demonstrate that the Jiucaiyuan Formation can be divided into seven lithofacies, namely massive bedding gravel, massive bedding sandstone, trough bedding sandstone, plane bedding sandstone, wavy bedding sandstone, parallel bedding siltstone, and massive bedding mudstone. Braided river delta facies dominate the Jiucaiyuan Formation. Nine main subtypes of facies were observed: flood plain, braided channel above lake level, natural levees above lake level, braided channel under lake level, interdistributary bays, natural levees under lake level, mouth bars, prodelta mud, and beach bar. The braided channel under lake level, mouth bar, and beach bar reservoirs exhibited the best physical properties, with average porosities of 16.54%, 19.83%, and 20.41%, respectively, and average permeabilities of 3.43 mD, 9.91 mD, and 12.98 mD, respectively. The physical properties of reservoirs in the study area are mainly controlled by sedimentation. Braided channels under lake level, mouth bars, and beach bars are favorable facies for the development of high-quality reservoirs. The results of this study are expected to serve as a theoretical basis for further exploration and development of oil and gas in the study area.

The Sichuan Basin was a part of the Yangtze Carbonate Platform (YCP) during the Cambrian–Ordovician, and marine carbonates were deposited in the basin during this interval. Although previous studies have evaluated the paleogeography, paleoclimate and paleoecology of this basin, they have primarily focused on the paleoecology and biological evolution in the basin; however, analysis of paleogeography and paleoclimate is lacking. This study integrated outcrop sedimentological and magnetic fabric data to document sedimentary differentiation and anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) within the YCP. The aims of this study were to infer paleowind directions during each epoch of the Cambrian–Ordovician and to constrain the paleogeographic location of the YCP. The northwestern, central and southeastern sides of the YCP were characterized by high-energy deposition (e.g. sub-angular to rounded intraclasts), medium-energy deposition (e.g. sub-angular to sub-rounded intraclasts) and low-energy deposition (e.g. angular to sub-angular intraclasts), respectively. The centroid D-K_maxvalues for the Early, Middle and Late Cambrian were 116° ± 52°, 145° ± 57° and 159° ± 62° from the present north, respectively; corresponding values for the Early, Middle and Late Ordovician were 169° ± 70°, 139° ± 73° and 91° ± 68° from the present north, respectively. Sedimentary differentiation and AMS results indicated that the prevailing wind directions during the Early Cambrian, Middle Cambrian, Late Cambrian, Early Ordovician, Middle Ordovician and Late Ordovician were 296° ± 52°, 325° ± 57°, 339° ± 62°, 349° ± 70°, 319° ± 73° and 271° ± 68° from the present north, respectively. The present study provides evidence for the location of the YCP during the Cambrian–Ordovician via the correspondence between the paleowind directions over the YCP and the trade winds in the Northern and Southern hemispheres. The novelty of this study lies in the following aspects: (1) it integrates microfacies and AMS analyses to establish paleowind patterns; (2) it constrains the paleo-hemispheric location of the YCP during the Cambrian–Ordovician; and (3) it provides a reference for further studies of the paleoclimate and paleogeography of the YCP during the Cambrian–Ordovician.