Background: Fragmentation and deforestation are one of the greatest threats to forests, and these processes are of even more concern in the tropics, where the seasonal dry forest is possibly one of the most threatened ecosystems with the least remaining surface area. Methods: The deforestation and fragmentation patterns that had occurred in Ecuadorian seasonal dry forests between 1990 and 2018 were verified, while geographic information systems and land cover shapes provided by the Ecuadorian Ministry of the Environment were employed to classify and evaluate three types of seasonal dry forests: deciduous, semi-deciduous, and transition. The study area was tessellated into 10 km² hexagons, in which six fragmentation parameters were measured: number of patches, mean patch size, median patch size, total edge, edge density and reticular fragmentation index (RFI). The RFI was also measured both outside and inside protected natural areas (unprotected, national protected areas and protected forest). Moreover, the areas with the best and worst conservation status, connectivity and risk of disappearance values were identified by means of a Getis-Ord Gi* statistical analysis. Results: The deforestation of seasonal dry forests affected 27.04% of the original surface area still remaining in 1990, with an annual deforestation rate of − 1.12% between 1990 and 2018. The RFI has increased by 11.61% as a result of the fact that small fragments of forest have tended to disappear, while the large fragments have been fragmented into smaller ones. The semi-deciduous forest had the highest levels of fragmentation in 2018. The three categories of protection had significantly different levels of fragmentation, with lower RFI values in national protected areas and greater values in protected forests. Conclusions: The seasonal dry forest is fragmenting, deforesting and disappearing in some areas. An increased protection and conservation of the Ecuadorian seasonal dry forest is, therefore, necessary owing to the fact that not all protection measures have been effective.

Summary: The Ecuadorian coast has two main types of forests, which are differentiated by their phenology: dry forests are deciduous and more humid forests are evergreen. Less of the dry forests on the Ecuadorian coast is protected (13% of its area) than the evergreen forests (28%), and the area devoted to the protection of dry forests (1069 km²) is substantially less than the area devoted to the protection of evergreen forests (2800 km²). Yet the conservation status of dry forests is more critical, with 83% of their area classified as having very low connectivity, 70% as being highly fragile and 86% as being highly threatened. In addition, the dry forests have fewer protected areas than the evergreen forests. It is therefore necessary to increase the protection of deciduous ecosystems as part of a comprehensive national strategy because they support high levels of biodiversity and many endemic species.

This study investigates the impact of fragmentation on Ecuador’s coastal mangrove forests. Fragmentation is identified as a primary cause of aquatic ecosystem degradation. We analyzed the relationship between habitat loss, fragmentation, and mangrove connectivity through a multitemporal approach using Global Mangrove Watch and fragmentation and connectivity metrics. The terrain was divided into 10 km² hexagons, and six fragmentation metrics were calculated. A Getis–Ord Gi* statistical analysis was used to identified areas with the best and worst conservation status, while connectivity analyses were performed for a generic species with a 5 km dispersion. Findings revealed widespread mangrove fragmentation in Ecuador, with geographical differences between the insular region (Galapagos) and the mainland coast. Minimal loss or even expansion of mangrove forests in areas like the Galapagos Islands contrasted with severe fragmentation along the mainland coast. Transformation of forests into fisheries, mainly prawn factories, was the primary driver of change, while only a weak correlation was observed between mangrove fragmentation and conversion to agriculture, which accounts for less than 15% of all deforestation in Ecuador. Fragmentation may increase or decrease depending on the management of different deforestation drivers and should be considered in large-scale mangrove monitoring. Focusing only on mangrove deforestation rates in defining regional conservation priorities may overlook the loss of ecosystem functions and fragmentation.

There are many local fragmentation metrics, but most can be grouped into four types (composition/area, isolation, edge, and shape), and none of them alone determines the degree of fragmentation of a patch. Here, we grouped together the main fragmentation metrics (area, edge, shape, and isolation) in order to propose a new metric/index, the Patch Fragmentation Index (PFI), with which to determine fragmentation at patch scale. The index was subsequently verified with the Ecuadorian seasonal dry forest by employing geographic information layers and temporal land uses changes in 1990, 2000, 2008, and 2018. The PFI was applied to calculate the fragmentation per patch, spatial and temporal changes of fragmentation based on PFI were assessed, and the spatial patterns (Getis-Ord Gi * analysis) were calculated. The Ecuadorian seasonal dry forest obtained a mean PFI value of 0.88 (median = 0.99) in 2018. This value has increased by 8.6% since 1990, and 3451 patches of forest disappeared between 1990 and 2018. The Getis-Ord Gi * analysis was effective with regard to describing the spatial patterns, and 62% of the patches that were classified as hot patches in 1990 had disappeared by 2018. The PFI has proven to be a useful tool with which to describe fragmentation patterns at patch scale (regardless of its size) and can be extrapolated to other landscapes. The PFI will provide a new vision and can help in the decision-making related to the conservation and management of fragmented ecosystems.

In many tropical regions, national forests plantation programs have been promoted. Those plantations frequently contribute to habitat changes. However, the associated effects of forest plantations on habitat fragmentation and landscape connectivity are unclear. From 2008 to 2018, we examined land use changes, plantations, and deforestation of the Manabí province (Ecuador) provided by the Ecuadorian Ministry of the Environment. Four scenarios were created: (i) land uses in 2008, (ii) land uses in 2018, (iii) land uses in 2018 without deforestation, and iv) land uses in 2018 including reforestation. Fragmentation and connectivity metrics were analyzed using ArcGisPro and Graphad 2.6 software, respectively. Puma yagouaroundi was selected as the reference species. At regional scale, forest plantations had a significant effect on land uses changes and fragmentation during the study period. Forests decreased from 33.7% to 32.4% between 2008 and 2018, although other natural land uses, mostly those involving shrubs, increased by almost double (from 2.4% to 4.6%). Most of the deforestation affected native forests during this period, and most reforested areas in 2018 covered former agricultural land. Fragmentation decreased in the number of patches and increased in the average patch size. When considering reforestation, deforestation was higher than the reforested area (58 km² of difference), increasing the number of patches but with smaller size. Reforestation increased connectivity with a higher number of links and distance, particularly in central and extreme northeast areas of Manabí province. The scenario without deforestation also increased connectivity for Puma yagouaroundi in the west part of the Manabí province. Our findings suggest that forest plantations contribute to forest conservation by increasing the connectivity between fragmented patches.