The graphene family has captured the interest and the imagination of an increasing number of scientists working in different fields, ranging from composites to flexible electronics. In the area of biomedical applications, graphene is especially involved in drug delivery, biosensing and tissue engineering, with strong contributions to the whole nanomedicine area. Besides the interesting results obtained so far and the evident success, there are still many problems to solve, on the way to the manufacturing of biomedical devices, including the lack of standardization in the production of the graphene family members. Control of lateral size, aggregation state (single vs. few layers) and oxidation state (unmodified graphene vs. oxidized graphenes) is essential for the translation of this material into clinical assays. In this Tutorial Review we critically describe the latest developments of the graphene family materials into the biomedical field. We analyze graphene-based devices starting from graphene synthetic strategies, functionalization and processibility protocols up to the final in vitro and in vivo applications. We also address the toxicological impact and the limitations in translating graphene materials into advanced clinical tools. Finally, new trends and guidelines for future developments are presented.

Visualizing Bond Order: Bond lengths in conjugated molecules closely reflect individual bond order and are usually determined by diffraction methods. It is valuable to know bond order for rationalizing aromaticity, and reactivity and for chemical structure determination. Gross et al. (p. 1326 ; see the Perspective by Perez and the cover) differentiated the bond orders in individual molecules in the fullerene C ₆₀ and in polyaromatic hydrocarbons by imaging with noncontact atomic force microscopy (AFM). The molecules were adsorbed onto a copper surface, and the AFM tip was decorated with a CO molecule, which was used to measure tip frequency shifts above the bonds and their apparent lengths. Multiple bonds appeared brighter in the images because of stronger Pauli repulsion, and their shorter length was amplified by bending of the CO at the tip apex.

Molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂), a promising two-dimensional transition-metal dichalcogenide, presents a challenge in the tuning of its optoelectronic and chemical properties. Herein, we demonstrate an efficient route to alter the crystalline structure of MoS₂ by chemical exfoliation. Using NaK metal alloys, exfoliated and covalently functionalized MoS₂ derivatives were obtained with a high metallic (1T) phase ratio, up to 94.5%. Consequently, exfoliated MoS₂ showed a significant surface-enhanced Raman scattering activity toward rhodamine 6G (R6G) and crystal violet, with low detection limits. The versatility of this approach allows the covalent functionalization of MoS₂ without relying on edge or basal-plane defects of the structure and preserving the high-ratio 1T phase.

Dendrimers constitute a distinctive category of synthetic materials that bear resemblance to proteins in various aspects, such as discrete structural organization, globular morphology, and nanoscale dimensions. Remarkably, these attributes coexist with the capacity for facile large-scale production. Due to these advantages, the realm of dendrimers has undergone substantial advancement since their inception in the 1980s. Numerous reviews have been dedicated to elucidating this subject comprehensively, delving into the properties and applications of quintessential dendrimer varieties like PAMAM, PPI, and others. Nevertheless, the contemporary landscape of dendrimers transcends these early paradigms, witnessing the emergence of a diverse array of novel dendritic architectures in recent years. In this review, we aim to present a comprehensive panorama of the expansive domain of dendrimers. As such, our focus lies in discussing the key attributes and applications of the predominant types of dendrimers existing today. We will commence with the conventional variants and progressively delve into the more pioneering ones, including Janus, supramolecular, shape-persistent, and rotaxane dendrimers.