The purpose of this study is to improve the solubility and dissolution of a poorly soluble drug, Irbesartan, using solid dispersion techniques. For that purpose, different polymers such as Soluplus^®, Kollidon^® VA 64, Kolliphor^® P 407, and Polyinylpyrrolidone (PVP-K30) were used as carriers at different concentrations to prepare solid dispersion formulations through the solvent evaporation method. In order to prepare binary dispersion formulations, Soluplus^® and Kollidon^® VA 64 were used at drug: polymer ratios of 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, and 1:4 (w/w). Saturation solubility of the drug in the presence of used carriers was performed to investigate the quantitative increase in solubility. Dissolution studies were performed to explore the drug release behavior from the prepared dispersions. Additionally, the characterization of the prepared formulations was carried out by performing DSC, SEM, XRD, and FTIR studies. The results revealed that among binary systems, K₄ formulation (Drug: Kollidon^® VA 64 at ratio of 1:4 w/w) exhibited optimal performance in terms of increased solubility, drug release, and other investigated parameters. Furthermore, ternary dispersion formulations of the optimized binary formulation were prepared with two more polymers, Kolliphor^® P 407 and Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP-K30), at (Drug: Kollidon^® VA 64:ternary polymer) ratios of 1:4:1, 1:4:2, and 1:4:3 (w/w). The results showed that KPVP (TD₃) exhibited the highest increase in solubility, as well as dissolution rate, among ternary solid dispersion formulations. Results of solubility enhancement by ternary solid dispersion formulations were also supported by FTIR, DSC, XRD, and SEM analysis. Conclusively, it was found that the ternary solid dispersion-based systems were more effective compared to the binary combinations in improving solubility as well as dissolution of a poorly soluble drug (Irbesartan).

Balochistan, Pakistan, represents one of the most ecologically extreme regions of South Asia, characterized by arid and semi-arid climates that exert strong selective pressures on native plant species. These harsh environmental conditions have driven the evolution of unique phytochemical profiles, resulting in medicinal plants with high concentrations of bioactive secondary metabolites. This review critically synthesizes current ethnobotanical, phytochemical, and pharmacological research on medicinal plants indigenous to Balochistan, with emphasis on species that have undergone experimental validation of biological activities. Ethnobotanical surveys reveal a rich diversity of medicinal flora, dominated by families such as Zygophyllaceae, Fabaceae, and Amaranthaceae, with high informant consensus for treatments of kidney disorders, gastrointestinal ailments, inflammation, and metabolic diseases. Phytochemical investigations demonstrate abundant phenolics, flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids, and glycosides, while pharmacological studies report potent antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, and antispasmodic activities. Notably, extracts of Zygophyllum eurypterum and Tribulus pentandrus exhibit bioactivities surpassing standard synthetic drugs in inflammation and α-amylase inhibition assays, respectively, while Vincetoxicum stocksii shows mechanistically validated calcium channel blocking effects. Despite promising efficacy, major gaps remain in toxicological evaluation, compound isolation, and sustainability of wild harvesting. This review highlights the exceptional bioprospecting potential of Balochistan’s medicinal flora and underscores the need for integrated pharmacological validation, safety assessment, and conservation-oriented utilization strategies to facilitate their translation into modern therapeutic applications.

Synthetic peptides have emerged as versatile molecular probes in biochemical research, offering high specificity, tunability, and adaptability for applications in diagnostics, therapeutics, and fundamental biology. This review explores the design, synthesis, and optimization of synthetic peptides, emphasizing techniques such as Solid-Phase Peptide Synthesis (SPPS), orthogonal protection strategies, and chemical modifications including non-proteinogenic amino acid incorporation, cyclization, and hydrocarbon stapling to enhance stability, permeability, and functionality. Key applications are discussed, including probes for protein-protein interactions (PPIs), post-translational modifications (PTMs), enzyme kinetics, and molecular imaging modalities like fluorescence, PET/SPECT, and multimodal systems. Comparative analyses highlight peptides' advantages over small molecules and antibodies, while addressing biopharmaceutical challenges such as metabolic instability and immunogenicity. Future directions underscore the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and computational tools for accelerated discovery. Overall, synthetic peptides bridge chemical biology and clinical translation, paving the way for personalized medicine and targeted therapies.