Butterflies are widely used to analyze biogeographical patterns, both at the global and regional scales. Thus far, most of the latter originated from well-surveyed northern regions, while the species-rich tropical areas lag due to a lack of appropriate data. We used checklists of 1379 butterfly species recorded in 36 federal states of the Republic of India (1) to explore the basic macroecological rules, and (2) to relate species richness and the distribution of endemics and geographic elements to geography, climate, land covers and socioeconomic conditions of the states. The area, land covers diversity and latitude did not affect species richness, whereas topographic diversity and the precipitation/temperature ratio (energy availability) were positive predictors. This is due the geographic and climatic idiosyncrasies of the Indian subcontinent, with its highest species richness in the small, densely forested mountainous northeast that receives summer monsoons. The peninsular effect that decreases the richness towards the tip of subcontinent is counterbalanced by the mountainous forested Western Ghats. Afrotropical elements are associated with savannahs, while Palearctic elements are associated with treeless habitats. The bulk of Indian butterfly richness, and the highest conservation priorities, overlap with global biodiversity hotspots, but the mountainous states of the Western Himalayas and the savannah states of peninsular India host distinctive faunas.

Forest management practice plays a critical role in conserving biodiversity. However, there are few studies on how forest management practice affects bird communities. Here, we compare the effectiveness of the Panchase Protection Forest (PPF; protected forest with government administration) and the Tibrekot Community Forest (TCF; community forest with community forest users’ group administration) in hosting bird diversity in the mid-hills of Nepal. We examined 96 point count stations during summer and winter in 2019 and recorded 160 species of birds with three globally threatened vultures (red-headed vulture Sarcogyps calvus, slender-billed vulture Gyps tenuirostris, and white-rumped vulture Gyps bengalensis). Forest management practice, season, and elevation all influenced the richness and abundance of birds. The diversity, richness, and abundance of birds and the most common feeding guilds (insectivore, omnivore, and carnivore) were higher in TCF than in PPF; however, globally threatened species were only recorded in PPF. We also recorded a higher bird species turnover (beta diversity) in TCF than in PPF. Our study indicates that community-managed forests can also provide quality habitats similar to those of protected forests managed by the government, and provide refuge to various bird species and guilds. However, we recommend more comparative studies in other tropical and sub-tropical areas to understand how different forest management practices influence bird diversity.

Tree leaves emit biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) in response to mechanical wounding by insect folivores. However, BVOCs are also released from leaves in response to damage to other tree organs. In this study, we hypothesized that if trees utilize BVOCs to defend against leaf herbivory, BVOCs emitted in response to leaf wounding would be different from those emitted in response to other types of mechanical damage. To test this hypothesis, we measured BVOCs emitted from the leaves of four Ficus species in response to leaf-cutting, branch-cutting, leaf-branch-cutting, and control (constitutive BVOCs). We found that leaf-cutting triggered the emission of BVOCs, but their emission patterns were species-specific, and the overall BVOC composition did not significantly differ from that of constitutive BVOCs. In contrast, branch-cutting triggered the emission of many BVOCs, some known as parasitoid attractants and herbivore deterrents. Our study suggests that plant defense mediated by BVOCs is highly species-specific and not effective for attracting herbivore enemies when unrelated disturbances such as tree falls and windstorms occur. Additionally, we recommend avoiding ex situ BVOC sampling of cut plants, as this method alters BVOC emission patterns from both intact and damaged leaves.

Butterflies exhibit seasonal dynamics in diversity and population in response to bioclimatic factors. However, their seasonal diversity remains poorly understood in urban landscapes. Therefore, we examined how butterfly diversity varies across seasons in the urban forests of Pokhara City, located in Nepal's subtropical region. We selected three urban forests—Banpale, Bhadrakali, and Shanti Ban Batika—to sample butterflies. We employed the Pollard Walk Survey method to collect data across all four seasons and analyzed various diversity indices, community composition, and indicator species. We also applied generalized linear mixed models (GLMMs) to assess the effects of precipitation and temperature on species richness and abundance. In total, 197 butterfly species, comprising 3344 individuals from six families, were recorded. The diversity and community composition differed significantly across seasons, with richness, Shannon, and Simpson diversities peaking during the monsoon and abundance peaking in the pre‐monsoon. Winter recorded the lowest species richness, diversity, and abundance. Species like Pieris canidia , Eurema hecabe , Ypthima baldus , and Junonia iphita contributed most to the differences across seasons. Anthene emolus was associated with the pre‐monsoon season, Lethe kansa and Athyma ranga were confined to winter, and several other species served as seasonal indicators. The family Nymphalidae dominated the butterfly community, with different families exhibiting notable seasonal variation in richness and abundance. Additionally, GLMMs found that precipitation alone has a significant positive effect on species richness, while the combined effect of precipitation and temperature negatively impacts both richness and abundance. This study highlights the importance of seasonality in shaping butterfly diversity and community composition in urban forests, offering essential insights for their conservation in urban landscapes.

Plants produce broad spectra of metabolites comprising primary metabolites involved in core physiological processes and specialized metabolites mediating responses to biotic and abiotic stress. Understanding how these various components of the metabolome respond to different environmental pressures can help us to understand drivers of phytochemical diversity and its role in plant ecology and evolution. We investigated how climatic stress, soil resources, and herbivory influence various measures of phytochemical diversity in four willow species along an elevational gradient (950–2250 m a.s.l.), focusing on flavonoids, salicinoids, and primary metabolites. Harsher climates increased metabolite concentrations, particularly salicinoids, but reduced flavonoid richness and overall structural α‐diversity. Similar responses in primary metabolites suggest that these shifts extend beyond defence chemistry. Chemical properties showed the strongest shifts in flavonoids and salicinoids and weaker changes in primary metabolites. β‐diversity generally increased with elevation and was most strongly associated with climate, while soil nutrients contributed to shifts in β‐diversity of salicinoids and primary metabolites. Willow species showed weak genetic differentiation across elevation, suggesting limited population divergence. Together, these results indicate that elevational shifts in willow chemistry involve broad but uneven reorganization across the metabolome, with different metabolite groups and measures of diversity plastically responding to different drivers.