In the field of data mining, clustering has shown to be an important technique. Numerous clustering methods have been devised and put into practice, and most of them locate high-quality or optimum clustering outcomes in the field of computer science, data science, statistics, pattern recognition, artificial intelligence, and machine learning. This research provides a modern, thorough review of both classic and cutting-edge clustering methods. The taxonomy of clustering is presented in this review from an applied angle and the compression of some hierarchical and partitional clustering algorithms with various parameters. We also discuss the open challenges in clustering such as computational complexity, refinement of clusters, speed of convergence, data dimensionality, effectiveness and scalability, data object representation, evaluation measures, data streams, and knowledge extraction; scientists and professionals alike will be able to use it as a benchmark as they strive to advance the state-of-the-art in clustering techniques.

Perimeter intrusion detection systems (PIDS) play a crucial role in safeguarding critical infrastructures from unauthorized access and potential security breaches. Security is the main concern everywhere in the world. There are already many PIDS available, but the PID systems are still lacking in terms of probability of detection, false intrusion, and the activity recognition of intrusion. To solve the above problem, we designed a prototype for PIDS using a DHT22 temperature and humidity sensor, vibration sensor SW- 420 Module Pinout, Mini PIR motion sensor, and Arduino UNO. After collecting the data from above mentioned sensors we applied machine learning algorithms DBSCAN to cluster the data points and K-NN classification to classify those clusters in one-dimensional data, but the results were not much satisfying. From there we got the motivation to improve the algorithm and applied it to two-dimensional data. The existing DBSCAN is not efficient due to its high complexity and the varying densities. To overcome these issues in this algorithm, we have improved the existing DBSCAN to ST-DBSCAN where we have used the estimation for the epsilon value and used the Manatton distance formula to find out the distance between points which produces 94.9853% accuracy on our dataset. Another contribution of the proposed work is that we have developed our own dataset named STPID-dataset, captured from security cameras installed in various locations which can be used by future researchers.

Perimeter Intrusion Detection Systems (PIDS) are crucial for protecting any physical locations by detecting and responding to intrusions around its perimeter. Despite the availability of several PIDS, challenges remain in detection accuracy and precise activity classification. To address these challenges, a new machine learning model is developed. This model utilizes the pre-trained InceptionV3 for feature extraction on PID intrusion image dataset, followed by t-SNE for dimensionality reduction and subsequent clustering. When handling high-dimensional data, the existing Density-Based Spatial Clustering of Applications with Noise (DBSCAN) algorithm faces efficiency issues due to its complexity and varying densities. To overcome these limitations, this research enhances the traditional DBSCAN algorithm. In the enhanced DBSCAN, distances between minimal points are determined using an estimation for the epsilon values with the Manhattan distance formula. The effectiveness of the proposed model is evaluated by comparing it to state-of-the-art techniques found in the literature. The analysis reveals that the proposed model achieved a silhouette score of 0.86, while comparative techniques failed to produce similar results. This research contributes to societal security by improving location perimeter protection, and future researchers can utilize the developed model for human activity recognition from image datasets.