Human trophoblast cells express transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) and TGF-β receptors. It has been shown that TGF-β1 treatment decreases the invasiveness of trophoblast cells. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying TGF-β1-decreased trophoblast invasion are still not fully understood. In the current study, we demonstrated that treatment of HTR-8/SVneo human trophoblast cells with TGF-β1 decreased cell invasion and down-regulated the expression of vascular endothelial cadherin (VE-cadherin). In addition, the inhibitory effect of TGF-β1 on VE-cadherin was confirmed in primary cultures of human trophoblast cells. Moreover, knockdown of VE-cadherin using siRNA decreased the invasiveness of HTR-8/SVneo cells and primary cultures of trophoblast cells. Treatment with TGF-β1 induced the activation of Smad-dependent signaling pathways and the expression of Snail and Slug. Knockdown of Smads attenuated TGF-β1-induced up-regulation of Snail and Slug and down-regulation of VE-cadherin. Interestingly, depletion of Snail, but not Slug, attenuated TGF-β1-induced down-regulation of VE-cadherin. Furthermore, overexpression of Snail suppressed VE-cadherin expression. Chromatin immunoprecipitation analyses showed the direct binding of Snail to the VE-cadherin promoter. These results provide evidence that Snail mediates TGF-β1-induced down-regulation of VE-cadherin, which subsequently contributed to TGF-β1-decreased trophoblast cell invasion.

Regulation of progesterone production in granulosa cells is important for normal reproductive functions. Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) is recognized as the key regulatory protein involved in the rate-limiting step of steroidogenesis. TGF-β1 protein is detected in human follicular fluid, and TGF-β1 and its receptors are expressed in human granulosa cells. However, the functional role of TGF-β1 in the regulation of StAR expression and progesterone production in human granulosa cells remains unknown. Our objective was to investigate the effects of TGF-β1 on StAR expression and progesterone production in human granulosa cells. SVOG cells are human granulosa cells that were obtained from women undergoing in vitro fertilization and immortalized with SV40 large T antigen. SVOG cells were used to investigate the effects of TGF-β1 on StAR expression and progesterone production at an academic research center. Levels of mRNA and protein were examined by RT-qPCR and western blotting, respectively. The accumulation levels of progesterone were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). TGF-β1 treatment downregulated StAR expression and decreased progesterone production. The suppressive effects of TGF-β1 on StAR expression and progesterone production were abolished by the inhibition of TGF-β type I receptor. In addition, treatment with TGF-β1 activated the Smad2/3 and ERK1/2 signaling pathways. The inhibition of the Smad3 and ERK1/2 signaling pathways attenuated the TGF-β1-induced downregulation of StAR expression and progesterone production. TGF-β1 downregulated StAR expression and decreased progesterone production by activating the Smad3 and ERK1/2 signaling pathways in human granulosa cells.

In addition to somatic cell-derived growth factors, oocyte-derived growth differentiation factor (GDF)9 and bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)15 play essential roles in female fertility. However, few studies have investigated their effects on human ovarian steroidogenesis, and fewer still have examined their differential effects or underlying molecular determinants. In the present study, we used immortalized human granulosa cells (SVOG) and human granulosa cell tumor cells (KGN) to compare the effects of GDF9 and BMP15 on steroidogenic enzyme expression and investigate potential mechanisms of action. In SVOG cells, neither GDF9 nor BMP15 affects the mRNA levels of P450 side-chain cleavage enzyme or 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. However, treatment with BMP15, but not GDF9, significantly decreases steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) mRNA and protein levels as well as progesterone production. These suppressive effects, along with the induction of Sma and Mad-related protein (SMAD)1/5/8 phosphorylation, are attenuated by cotreatment with 2 different BMP type I receptor inhibitors (dorsomorphin and DMH-1). Furthermore, depletion of activin receptor-like kinase (ALK)3 using small interfering RNA reverses the effects of BMP15 on SMAD1/5/8 phosphorylation and StAR expression. Similarly, knockdown of ALK3 abolishes BMP15-induced SMAD1/5/8 phosphorylation in KGN cells. These results provide evidence that oocyte-derived BMP15 down-regulates StAR expression and decreases progesterone production in human granulosa cells, likely via ALK3-mediated SMAD1/5/8 signaling. Our findings suggest that oocyte may play a critical role in the regulation of progesterone to prevent premature luteinization during the late stage of follicle development.

In ovarian cancer, it has been shown that E-cadherin is down-regulated by epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor (EGFR) activation, and that cells with low E-cadherin expression are particularly invasive. Although it is generally believed that reactive oxygen species play important roles in intracellular signal transduction, the role of reactive oxygen species in EGF-mediated reductions in E-cadherin remains to be elucidated. In this study, we show that EGF treatment down-regulated E-cadherin by up-regulating its transcriptional repressors, Snail and Slug, in human ovarian cancer cells. Using 5-(and-6)-chloromethyl-2′,7′-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate acetyl ester staining, we found that intracellular hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) production was increased in EGF-treated cells and could be inhibited by treatment with an EGFR inhibitor, AG1478, or an H₂O₂ scavenger, polyethylene glycol (PEG)-catalase. In addition, PEG-catalase diminished EGF-induced p38 MAPK, but not ERK1/2 or c-Jun N-terminal kinase, phosphorylation. PEG-catalase and the p38 MAPK inhibitor SB203580 abolished EGF-induced Snail, but not Slug, expression and E-cadherin down-regulation. Furthermore, the involvement of p38 MAPK in the down-regulation of E-cadherin was confirmed using specific p38α MAPK small interfering RNA. Finally, we also show that EGF-induced cell invasion was abolished by treatment with PEG-catalase and SB203580, as well as p38α MAPK small interfering RNA, and that forced expression of E-cadherin diminished intrinsic invasiveness as well as EGF-induced cell invasion. This study demonstrates a novel mechanism in which EGF down-regulates E-cadherin expression through production of H₂O₂, activation of p38 MAPK, and up-regulation of Snail in human ovarian cancer cells.

Dysregulation of the Hippo pathway in the liver results in overgrowth and eventually tumorigenesis. To date, several upstream mechanisms have been identified that affect the Hippo pathway, which ultimately regulate YAP, the major downstream effector of the pathway. However, upstream regulators of the Hippo pathway in the liver remain poorly defined. Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is a bioactive sphingolipid metabolite that has been shown to stimulate hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cell proliferation, but whether the Hippo pathway is involved in S1P-stimulated HCC cell proliferation remains to be determined. Here it is demonstrated that S1P activates YAP and that the S1P receptor 2 (S1PR2/S1P2) mediates S1P-induced YAP activation in both human and mouse HCC cells. S1P promotes YAP-mediated upregulation of cysteine-rich protein 61 and connective tissue growth factor (CTGF), and stimulates HCC cell proliferation. By using siRNA-mediated knockdown approaches, only CTGF was required for S1P-stimulated cell proliferation. Of note, S1P activates YAP in a MST1/2-independent manner suggesting that the canonical Hippo kinase is not required for S1P-mediated proliferation in liver. The upregulation of CTGF and S1P2 were also observed in liver-specific YAP overexpression transgenic mouse hepatocytes. Moreover, YAP regulated liver differentiation–dependent gene expression by influencing the chromatin binding of HNF4α based on ChIP-seq analysis. Finally, results using gain- and loss-of-function approaches demonstrate that HNF4α negatively regulated S1P-induced CTGF expression. Implications: These findings reveal a role for S1P in stimulating HCC cell proliferation by upregulating CTGF expression through S1P2-mediated YAP activation. Mol Cancer Res; 16(10); 1543–55. ©2018 AACR.