The evolution of radiation damage in Fe and Fe–Cr alloys under heavy-ion irradiation was investigated using transmission electron microscopy. Thin foils were irradiated with 100 or 150 keV Fe⁺ and Xe⁺ ions at room temperature (RT) and 300°C. Dynamic observations followed the evolution of damage and the early stages in damage development are reported. Small (2–5 nm) dislocation loops first appeared at doses between 10¹⁶ and 10¹⁷ ions m⁻² in all materials. Loop number densities depended strongly on the foil orientation in pure Fe but not in Fe–Cr alloys. Number densities did not depend strongly on Cr content. For a given material, defect yields were higher for Xe⁺ ions than for Fe⁺ ions, and were higher at RT than at 300°C. Loops with both ⟨100⟩ and ½⟨111⟩ Burgers vectors were identified. The proportion of ⟨100⟩ loops was larger, especially in pure Fe. Dynamic observations showed that: the contrast of some new loops developed over intervals as long as 0.2 s; hopping of ½⟨111⟩ loops was induced by the ion and electron beams and was pronounced in ultra-pure iron; and many loops were lost during and after ion irradiation by glide to the foil surface. The number of loops retained was strongly dependent on the foil orientation in Fe, but less so in Fe–Cr alloys. This is due to lower loop mobility in Fe–Cr alloys, probably due to pinning by Cr atoms. Reduced loop loss probably explains the higher loop number densities in Fe–Cr alloys compared with pure Fe.

A transition is reported in the dislocation microstructure of pure Fe produced by heavy-ion irradiation of thin foils, which took place between irradiation temperatures (T _irr) of 300°C and 500°C. At T _irr ≤ 400°C, the microstructure was dominated by round or irregular non-edge dislocation loops of interstitial nature and with Burgers vectors b = ½ ⟨111⟩, although interstitial ⟨100⟩ loops were also present; at 500°C only rectilinear pure-edge ⟨100⟩ loops occurred. At intermediate temperatures there was a gradual transition between the two types of microstructure. At temperatures just below 500°C, mobile ½⟨111⟩ loops were seen to be subsumed by sessile ⟨100⟩ loops. A possible explanation of these observations is given.

A study of heavy-ion damage in Fe and Fe–Cr alloys started in Part 1 1 Yao, Z , Hernandez-Mayoral, M , Jenkins, ML and Kirk, MA . 2008. Phil. Mag., 88: 2851 [Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar] was continued with an investigation of damage development in UHP Fe and Fe–8%Cr at higher doses up to 2 × 10¹⁹ ions m⁻² (∼13 dpa). In thin-foil irradiations with 150 keV Fe⁺ ions at 300°C and room temperature (RT), more complex microstructures started to develop in thicker regions of the foils at doses greater than about 2 × 10¹⁸ ions m⁻², apparently involving cooperative interaction, alignment and coalescence of smaller loops. First strings of loops all with the same ½⟨111⟩ Burgers vectors formed. In UHP Fe irradiated at 300°C the damage then developed into colonies of resolvable interstitial loops with ½⟨111⟩ Burgers vectors. By a dose of 2 × 10¹⁹ ions m⁻², large (several hundred nanometre) finger-shaped loops with large shear components had developed by the growth and subsequent coalescence of smaller loops. Similar but finer-scale damage structures developed in UHP Fe irradiated at RT and in Fe–8%Cr irradiated at both RT and 300°C.

The strain rate dependence of the brittle-to-ductile transition (BDT) temperature was investigated in notched and un-notched miniature bars made of high-purity polycrystalline tungsten and in notched bars of less-pure sintered material. The activation energy, E _BDT, for the process controlling the BDT in pure tungsten was equal to 1.0 eV both in un-notched and notched specimens, though the brittle–ductile transition temperature, T _BDT, was ≈ 40 K lower at each strain rate for the un-notched samples, indicating that the activation energy, E _BDT, is a materials parameter, independent of geometrical factors. The experimental data obtained from pure tungsten are described well by a two-dimensional dislocation-dynamics model of crack-tip plasticity, which is also discussed. For sintered tungsten, E _BDT was found to be 1.45 eV; T _BDT at a given strain rate was higher than in the pure tungsten by ≈ 90 K, suggesting that the BDT in tungsten is very sensitive to impurity levels.

Irradiation induces the formation of stacking fault tetrahedra (SFTs) in a number of fcc metals, such as stainless steel and pure copper. In order to understand the role of the material's parameters on this formation, pure Cu, Ni, Pd and Al, having a respective stacking fault energy of 45, 125, 180 and 166 mJ m⁻², have been irradiated with high energy protons to a dose of about 10⁻² dpa at room temperature. The irradiation-induced microstructure has been investigated using transmission electron microscopy. All irradiated metals but Al present SFTs. The proportion of perfect, truncated and grouped SFTs has been determined. The SFT energy as a function of size has been calculated using elasticity of the continuum, with respect to the energy of a number of other possible defect configurations. It appears that the key parameters are the stacking fault energy and the shear modulus. Their implication on the formation and stability of the SFTs is discussed.