Fire strongly impacts the composition and structure of ecosystems, with consequences yet to be understood. We used Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data to map fire frequency and fire intensity and investigate their effects on miombo woodlands (MW) of central Mozambique. Tree species diversity was evaluated and compared using rarefaction curves. Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) ordination was used to identify patterns of species composition occurrence. The indicator value index method was applied to verify the occurrence of fire indicator species. In general, tree communities responded differently to varied fire regimes. We found low tree density in Intermediate fire frequency and intensity (IfIi) (180 trees ha⁻¹) and High-frequency and Low intensity (HfLi) (316 trees ha⁻¹) areas. The IfIi fire regime had the lowest carbon stocks (9.1 Mg ha⁻¹), when compared to the rest of fire regimes. The species diversity decreased as fire intensity increased. IfIi areas had the maximum species diversity. The NMDS showed a varied species composition according to fire regime. We found a strong relationship between the species diversity and composition, and the pattern of fire occurrence in each fire regime. Our results are critical in supporting fire management policies and understanding fire regimes and their effects on miombo trees’ structure and composition.

Miombo woodlands (MW) are increasingly experiencing widespread land use and land cover change (LULCC). This study explores the influence of fire, agriculture, and slope variability on LULCC in the miombo of the Beira Corridor. Land use and land cover data were derived from three Landsat images for 2001, 2008, and 2018. Slope attributes were derived from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM). Monthly burned data of Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) were used to map fire frequency. The derived data were then used to investigate the relationship between LULCC and fire, agriculture, and slope, based on geographically weighted regression (GWR). In addition, the relationship between LULCC and slope was assessed. Our findings indicate that fire frequency, agriculture, and slope were significantly spatially non-stationary. We found that LULCC was negatively correlated with agriculture in open miombo, but positively correlated in dense miombo. A positive relationship between LULCC and fire was found for dense and open miombo. Changes in agriculture, dense miombo, and open miombo increased towards high slopes. The study improves the understanding of the spatial effect of LULCC drivers. The development and implementation of effective fire management actions is required to promote sustainable forest management and preservation of critical ecosystem services.

In this chapter, we are resurging the hot debate on Protected Areas (PAs) design and management, which had comprehensively been discussed. Two opposing approaches are commonly accepted: (i) relocation of people to outside PAs (isolation of PAs) or enabling people to live “peacefully” with wildlife (coexistence). The debate has died, and hence donors started to condition their funds in relation to the performance of biodiversity indicators, without considering the needs and aspirations of indigenous people inside and around PAs. This conservation managers and the governments in the Developing Countries (DCs) to provide inaccurate data, so that donors’ funds keep flowing into PA, hence undermining long-term sustainability of conservation programs. Given that the population within most of the PAs in the DCs will more than double by 2050 and the push and pull drivers are not acting in the conventional way, the following specific questions are to be raised for future discussion in this chapter. What to do when: (i) food production is conflicting with conservation goals; (ii) when market and biophysical drivers impel farmers to select farming systems that harm biodiversity and the environment; (iii) how to act in a context where success conservation stories are translated into number of species recovered, instead of people moved out of poverty or both; (iv) coexistence is pitched by mainstream media as a magic recipe to address conservation challenges, while neglecting the complexity behind coexistence itself; and last but not the least (v) when biodiversity is about to be mainstreamed in PAs richer in biodiversity. We use two case studies in northern Mozambique, the Niassa Special Reserve and Chipanje Chetu Community Conservation Area, as a reference point to frame our debate. By diving deep into both PAs, we intended to create a platform for a more constructive, transparent, and open dialog, thus avoiding painting discourses of hope and success, so that sustainable conservation can be achieved even in the context of unprecedented population growth.

The Gilé National Park (PNAG for its acronym in Portuguese), located in central Mozambique is one of the most important protected areas in the country. It is one of the last remnants of intact Miombo woodlands, providing critical habitat for endemic biodiversity. Fires are an important ecological factor in Miombo, but changes in fire regimes may compromise the stability of this ecosystem and thus, the conservation value of PNAG. This study assessed fire patterns and mapped fire risk in support of adaptive management in the PNAG. We investigated Miombo fire regime over 23 years (2001 to 2023) in terms of return interval, frequency, temporal distribution, spatial density and intensity, extent, and severity, by using two Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite products (MCD14ML active fire; MCD64A1 burned area). Primary risk drivers were established and spatial fire likelihood mapped, using the Random Forest algorithm. Analysis revealed pronounced late dry season burning (August–October) affecting approximately 60% of the PNAG annually, especially in central-northern and eastern landscapes. Remarkably, 88% of the park maintains a 1-to-2-year fire return interval across the entire fire season (May–October) while only 7% maintains return frequencies of 3-to-4-year cycles. The latter is important for maintaining Miombo ecosystem functionality. Medium to medium–high fire severity covered 98% of the total fire extension. Climate-related drivers and hunting activities were identified as key fire initiators, especially in central areas of the park. The findings demonstrate an urgent need for spatially differentiated fire management action through prescribed burning to maintain PNAG’s ecological resilience and conservation value.

Miombo forest in Gilé National Park (PNAG), central Mozambique have significant habitat for endemic biodiversity but face mounting pressure from recurrent fire disturbance. This study assessed fire patterns and mapped fire risk in support of adaptive management in the PNAG. We investigated miombo fire regime over 23 years (2001 to 2023) in terms of return intervals, frequency, temporal distribution, spatial density and intensity, area extent, and severity, by using two MODIS satellite products (MCD14ML active fire; MCD64A1 burned area). Primary risk drivers were established and spatial fire likelihood mapped, using Random forest algorithm. Analysis revealed pronounced late dry-season burning (August-October) affecting approximately 60% of PNAG annually, especially in central-northern and eastern landscapes. Remarkably, 88% of the park maintain 1 to 2 year fire return interval while only 7% maintains return frequencies of 3 to 4 year cycles, important for maintaining Miombo ecosystem functionality. Medium to medium-high fire severity covered 98% of total fire areas. Climate-related drivers and hunting activities were identified as key fire imitators, peaking in central areas in terms of likelihood. Findings demonstrate urgent need for spatially-differentiated fire governance incorporating strategic zoning and prescribed burning to maintain PNAG's ecological resilience and conservation value.

Tropical forests and woodlands are currently exposed to multiple anthropogenic pressures, such as shifting cultivation (SC). This study assessed the impact of SC on tree species diversity and composition following land-use gradients. The study was conducted in the miombo woodlands (MW) of the Chipanje Chetu Community Conservation Area, northern Mozambique. Vegetation data collection involved three land-uses: mature forest, croplands and fallows. The fallows were categorized into three chronosequences: young fallows (1-4 yrs), medium-aged fallows (5-10 yrs) and old fallows (11-25 yrs). We calculated diversity metrics using Hill numbers as the effective number of species. A non-metric multidimensional scaling analysis was computed to determine the dissimilarity of species composition among land-use classes. We assessed the relationship between fallow ages and stem density for adult and juvenile trees using generalized linear model (GLM) and generalized additive model (GAM) with Poisson distribution. Our results showed that agriculture drastically reduced the species diversity and richness of adult individuals, across land-use classes. For juvenile trees, no differences were detected. Indval identified two indicator species under the balanced approach for juvenile stands in the croplands, whereas for adult trees the balanced method retained only one specie in mature forest. We found significant non-linear relationship between stem density and fallow age for adult trees. Mature forests showed a more uniform distribution of species, whereas in juvenile stands equitability remained consistent across land-use classes. Our findings point to the possibility of integrating agriculture and conservation, by adopting appropriate management practices. The adoption of agricultural practices that combine cultivation with fallow cycles is strategic and ensure miombo recovery and the maintenance of ecological integrity. The implementation of these measures will not only maintain the diversity and resilience of miombo, but also will ensure the persistence of ecosystem services, maintaining a balance between conservation and sustainable use of natural resource.