Forest ecosystems provide various services that are crucial to human beings, in which carbon sequestration and storage is one of them with the most market potential and is usually governed by market-based instruments (MBIs). MBIs do not operate alone but in the hybrid governance arrangements. While the importance of public institutions has been identified, there is still a need to examine the specific role of public institutions in the market-oriented mechanism. Our work seeks answers to this question. This meta-study presents an up-to-date picture of MBIs targeted at forest carbon, in which 88 mechanisms are synthesized in a quantitative database. We analyze and discuss policy design features of these mechanisms and group them into nine types of MBIs. We find that many instruments coexist and/or interact with other instruments. In light of these results, we introduce the concept of policy mix and argue that the interplay among policy instruments can be complementary or interdependent. Using cluster analysis to identify underlying patterns, we reconfirm previous findings that there are distinct differences between public and private PES schemes, but also recognize a new cluster and label it as a ‘legally binding mechanism’. We discover that the role of public institutions is pronounced in the forest carbon mechanisms, and they can be the buyer, seller, regulator, coordinator, intermediary, and facilitator. Besides, public institutions tend to play an increasing role in the future climate policy arena. We believe that public institutions should stand out and create enabling conditions for private governance and finance.

Low economic profitability and structural constraints in mountain agriculture contribute to farmland abandonment and rural depopulation, increasing the need for market-based strategies that enhance the value of traditional agri-food products. This paper examines consumer engagement with five traditional plant-based products from northeastern Italy, using survey data from 3,001 Italian consumers. Engagement is conceptualized as a sequential process comprising three statuses: not aware, aware non-consumer, and aware consumer. Continuation-ratio logit models allow distinguishing factors associated with product awareness from those associated with consumption conditional on awareness. Results reveal substantial heterogeneity across the products and between the two transitions. More frequent mountain visits are generally associated with greater awareness and, for some products, higher odds of consumption among aware consumers. Food-and-wine tourism shows the most consistent positive association with consumer engagement, while outdoor activities and visits to relatives or friends are also relevant for some products. Distinguishing awareness from its conversion into consumption provides a more nuanced basis for market segmentation and the valorization of traditional products in mountain and other marginal rural areas.