The token exchange paradigm shows that monkeys and great apes are able to use objects as symbolic tools to request specific food rewards. Such studies provide insights into the cognitive underpinnings of economic behaviour in non-human primates. However, the ecological validity of these laboratory-based experimental situations tends to be limited. Our field research aims to address the need for a more ecologically valid primate model of trading systems in humans. Around the Uluwatu Temple in Bali, Indonesia, a large free-ranging population of long-tailed macaques spontaneously and routinely engage in token-mediated bartering interactions with humans. These interactions occur in two phases: after stealing inedible and more or less valuable objects from humans, the macaques appear to use them as tokens, by returning them to humans in exchange for food. Our field observational and experimental data showed (i) age differences in robbing/bartering success, indicative of experiential learning, and (ii) clear behavioural associations between value-based token possession and quantity or quality of food rewards rejected and accepted by subadult and adult monkeys, suggestive of robbing/bartering payoff maximization and economic decision-making. This population-specific, prevalent, cross-generational, learned and socially influenced practice may be the first example of a culturally maintained token economy in free-ranging animals. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Existence and prevalence of economic behaviours among non-human primates'.

Most of the information available on the conservation status of the ebony leaf monkey (Trachypithecus auratus), a species categorized as “Vulnerable” on The IUCN Red List, comes from studies conducted in Java. However, these findings may not be representative of other islands of the Indonesian archipelago, such as Bali. In order to estimate the density and abundance of the ebony leaf monkey population in Prapat Agung Peninsula, located in the northern part of the West Bali National Park, Indonesia, we used repeated line transect distance sampling, a standard method for census surveys of wild animal populations, including primates. The estimated group density, individual density, group size, and total population size were 0.95 group/km2, 7.11 individuals/km2, 7.49 individuals/group, and 422 individuals, respectively. The comparison of these values with those obtained from a previous study conducted 10 years ago in the same area and with the same method showed a marked decrease in population density and abundance as well as changes in the spatial distribution of ebony leaf monkeys. Our data suggest that such trends may be at least partially explained by anthropogenic disturbances, including illegal logging activities and habitat fragmentation. Given these alarming signs, and to better assess trends in the Balinese ebony leaf monkey populations change over time, we urge for the replication of the same survey design in the same study area, at least every five years. Such a survey effort is crucial not only to better understand the socio-ecology of ebony leaf monkeys, but also to determine conservation priorities and devise management plans related to the protection of the populations of this vulnerable primate species in Indonesia.