The facile bio-fabrication of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles (NPs) is described in this study using an aqueous leaf extract of Salvia officinalis L. as an efficient stabilizing/capping agent. Biosynthesis of nanomaterials using phytochemicals present in the plants has received great attention and is gaining significant importance as a possible alternative to the conventional chemical methods. The properties of the bio-fabricated ZnONPs were examined by different techniques, such as UV-visible spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction spectroscopy (XRD), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and thermogravimetric/differential scanning calorimetry analysis (TGA/DTG). The photocatalytic activity of ZnONPs was investigated against methyl orange (MO) under UV light irradiation. Under optimum experimental conditions, ZnONPs exhibited 92.47% degradation of MO. Furthermore, the antifungal activity of bio-fabricated ZnONPs was determined against different clinical Candida albicans isolates following standard protocols of broth microdilution and disc diffusion assay. The susceptibility assay revealed that ZnONPs inhibit the growth of all the tested fungal isolates at varying levels with MIC values ranging from 7.81 to 1.95 µg/mL. Insight mechanisms of antifungal action appeared to be originated via inhibition of ergosterol biosynthesis and the disruption of membrane integrity. Thus, it was postulated that bio-fabricated ZnONPs have sustainable applications in developing novel antifungal agents with multiple drug targets. In addition, ZnONPs show efficient photocatalytic efficiency without any significant catalytic loss after the catalyst was recycled and reused multiple times.

The design and development of new cost-effective, clean, and efficient synthesis procedures for the synthesis of nanoparticles have recently become an intriguing research topic with broad implications. This study aimed to develop an eco-friendly biogenic method that uses minimum nontoxic chemicals to yield ZnO nanoparticles with enhanced capabilities for degradation of pharmaceutical by-products. The present study used black dried lemon peel aqueous extract as a biological stabilizing agent to prepare pure and stable zinc oxide nanoparticles (LP-ZnO NPs). The surface morphology, elemental composition, crystalline properties, size, optical properties, the role of functional groups in stabilization, capping, and the thermal stability of LP-ZnO NPs were investigated using scanning electron microscopy equipped with energy dispersive X-ray (SEM-EDX), X-ray diffraction (XRD), UV–visible diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (UV-DRS), PL, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), Raman spectra, and thermogravimetric (TGA) analyses. Multiphoton resonances were observed in LP-ZnO NPs along the crystalline structure as per Raman analysis. The developed LP-ZnO NPs were thermally stable at an annealing temperature of 500 °C with a weight loss of 53%. Photodegradation of antibiotic ciprofloxacin was observed in the presence of UV light via LP-ZnO NPs (serving as photocatalyst). In addition, in optimal reaction media, the biogenic LP-ZnO NPs retained improved photocatalytic performance toward ciprofloxacin. Meanwhile, in the photodegradation process of CPI molecules via ZnO as a photocatalyst, the optimum catalytic dose, concentration of CIP molecules, and pH were attained at 10 mg, 2 × 10⁻⁵ M, and pH 8, respectively. The aim of this research work was to develop a simple, affordable photocatalytic technique for the photodegradation of antibiotics in aqueous media. The photocatalytic process was performed under different experimental conditions, including varying catalytic doses, ciprofloxacin concentrations, and pH of the reaction mixture.

The green chemistry method is the preferred approach for synthesizing metal and metal oxide nanoparticles because of its low toxicity, environmental friendliness, feasibility, and safety to human health compared with other chemical or physical methods. The present work reports the phytogenic synthesis of palladium nanoparticles (PdNPs) using an aqueous extract of Matricaria recutita (Chamomile). The phytochemical-mediated synthesis of PdNPs is an economical and eco-friendly approach without using toxic elements as reducing and capping or stabilizing agents. The UV-visible spectroscopic characterization was initially used to confirm the preparation of PdNPs using an aqueous extract of M. recutita flowers as a bioreductant for the reduction of Pd²⁺ to Pd⁰ without using any extra capping and reducing agents. The appearance of surface plasmon resonance (SPR) peak at 286 nm confirmed the formation of M. recutita extract-based PdNPs. Furthermore, the PdNPs were characterized by TEM, SEM, EDX, XRD, XPS, and FTIR to confirm their proper synthesis. The thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was implemented to interpret the decomposition pattern and thermal stability of as-synthesized PdNPs. The biosynthesized PdNPs were further applied as a nanocatalyst in degradation of an azo dye Congo red (CR) in the presence of NaBH₄. The catalytic reduction of 4-nitrophenol (4-NP) to 4-aminophenol (4-AP) was also investigated in the presence of NaBH₄. All the catalytic reactions were performed in water, and no significant loss in catalytic activity was observed after recovery and reusability of the biosynthesized PdNPs.

In terms of reduced toxicity, the biologically inspired green synthesis of nanoparticles has emerged as a promising alternative to chemically fabricated nanoparticles. The use of a highly stable, biocompatible, and environmentally friendly aqueous extract of Cynara cardunculus as a reducing and capping agent in this study demonstrated the possibility of green manufacturing of silver nanoparticles (CC-AgNPs). UV–visible spectroscopy validated the development of CC-AgNPs, indicating the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) λ_max band at 438 nm. The band gap of CC-AgNPs was found to be 2.26 eV. SEM and TEM analysis examined the surface morphology of CC-AgNPs, and micrographs revealed that the nanoparticles were spherical. The crystallinity, crystallite size, and phase purity of as-prepared nanoparticles were confirmed using XRD analysis, and it was confirmed that the CC-AgNPs were a face-centered cubic (fcc) crystalline-structured material. Furthermore, the role of active functional groups involved in the reduction and surface capping of CC-AgNPs was revealed using the Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopic technique. CC-AgNPs were mostly spherical and monodispersed, with an average size of 26.89 nm, and were shown to be stable for a longer period without any noticeable change at room temperature. Further, we checked the antifungal mechanism of CC-AgNPs against C. auris MRL6057. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) and minimum fungicidal concentrations (MFC) were 50.0 µg/mL and 100.0 µg/mL respectively. The cell count and viability assay confirmed the fungicidal potential of CC-AgNPs. Further, the analysis showed that CC-AgNPs could induce apoptosis and G2/M phase cell cycle arrest in C. auris MRL6057. Our results also suggest that the CC-AgNPs were responsible for the induction of mitochondrial toxicity. TUNEL assay results revealed that higher concentrations of CC-AgNPs could cause DNA fragmentation. Therefore, the present study suggested that CC-AgNPs hold the capacity for antifungal drug development against C. auris infections.