Background: Current multimodal neuroimaging plays a critical role in studying clinical conditions such as cardiovascular disease, major depression, and other disorders related to chronic stress. These conditions involve the brainstem-hypothalamic network, specifically the locus coeruleus (LC), dorsal vagal complex (DVC), and paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus, collectively referred to as the “DVC-LC-PVN circuitry.” This circuitry is strongly associated with the norepinephrine (NE) and epinephrine (E) neurotransmitter systems, which are implicated in the regulation of key autonomic functions, such as cardiovascular and respiratory control, stress response, and cognitive and emotional behaviors. Objectives: To develop a methodology for delineating the DVC-LC-PVN circuitry in the human brain using multimodal neuroimaging. Methods: We combined structural T1-weighted morphometric magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and diffusion MRI-based tractography to map the DVC-LC-PVN circuitry in the human brain. This methodology was applied to a pilot sample of brain datasets from five healthy adult subjects obtained from the publicly available Human Connectome Project repository and to one post-mortem human dataset. Results: The DVC-LC-PVN circuitry was delineated in vivo in five human subjects and one ultra-high resolution post-mortem dataset, allowing for refined anatomical observations. Conclusion: NE and E neurotransmitter systems engender substantial interest in both basic and clinical neuroscience due to their roles in the regulation of key autonomic functions, such as cardiovascular and respiratory control, stress responses, and cognitive and emotional behaviors. As demonstrated in this study, multimodal neuroimaging techniques provide a valuable approach for mapping small brainstem and hypothalamic structures and complex circuitries such as the DVC-LC-PVN circuitry.

Hydrocephalus is a central nervous system condition characterized by CSF buildup and ventricular hypertrophy. It is divided into two types: communicative and non-communicating hydrocephalus. Congenital hydrocephalus has been linked to several changes in the subcommissural organ (SCO). However, it is unclear whether these changes occur before or as a result of the hydrocephalic illness. This report presents three cases of human fetuses with hydrocephalus: one non-communicating case, two communicating cases, and two controls. Hematoxylin–Eosin (H&E) or cresyl violet and immunohistochemistry with anti-transthyretin were used to analyze SCO morphological and secretory changes. We conclude that in the cases presented here, there could be an early regression in the SCO of the communicating cases that is not present in the non-communicating case.

Introduction: The relationship between the entorhinal cortex (EC) and the hippocampus has been studied by different authors, who have highlighted the importance of grid cells, place cells, and the trisynaptic circuit in the processes that they regulate: the persistence of spatial, explicit, and recent memory and their possible impairment with ageing. Objective: We aimed to determine whether older age causes changes in the size and number of grid cells contained in layer III of the EC and in the granular layer of the dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus. Methods: We conducted post-mortem studies of the brains of 6 individuals aged 56–87 years. The brain sections containing the DG and the adjacent EC were stained according to the Klüver-Barrera method, then the ImageJ software was used to measure the individual neuronal area, the total neuronal area, and the number of neurons contained in rectangular areas in layer III of the EC and layer II of the DG. Statistical analysis was subsequently performed. Results: We observed an age-related reduction in the cell population of the external pyramidal layer of the EC, and in the number of neurons in the granular layer of the DG. Conclusion: Our results indicate that ageing causes a decrease in the size and density of grid cells of the EC and place cells of the DG. Introducción: La relación entre la corteza entorrinal y el hipocampo ha sido estudiada por diferentes autores, que han destacado la importancia de las células de cuadrícula, las células de posicionamiento y la conexión trisináptica, en los procesos que regulan; la persistencia de la memoria espacial, explícita y reciente y su posible afección con envejecimiento. Objetivo: Observar si existen diferencias en el tamaño y número de células de cuadrícula contenidas en la lámina tres de la corteza entorrinal y en la capa granular del giro dentado del hipocampo de pacientes mayores. Metodología: Realizamos estudios post-mortem del cerebro de 6 sujetos de edades comprendidas entre los 56 y 87 años. Los cortes de cerebros que contenían el giro dentado (GD) del hipocampo y la corteza entorrinal (CE) adyacente se tiñeron con el método de Klüver- Barrera, después se midió, mediante el programa Image J, el área neuronal individual, el área neuronal total, así como el número de neuronas, contenidas en cuadrículas rectangulares a nivel de la lámina III del CE y la lámina II del GD y se lleva a cabo un análisis estadístico. Resultados: Se ha observado una reducción de la población celular de la capa piramidal externa de la CE, así como de las neuronas de la capa granular del giro dentado relacionada con el envejecimiento. Conclusión: Nuestros resultados indican que el envejecimiento produce una disminución en el tamaño y la densidad neuronal en las células de cuadricula del córtex entorrinal y de posicionamiento del giro dentado.

La relación entre la corteza entorrinal y el hipocampo ha sido estudiada por diferentes autores, que han destacado la importancia de las células de cuadrícula, las células de posicionamiento y la conexión trisináptica en los procesos que regulan: la persistencia de la memoria espacial, explícita y reciente, y su posible afección con el envejecimiento.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation-electroencephalography (TMS–EEG) biomarkers have recently become available as a means to obtain new understanding of the causal chains of neuronal signaling in the brain. This is a key piece in the puzzle of how the brain is organized and how it works. Using dMRI tractography, we can map the circuit beneath a chosen cortical target; TMS can then stimulate it, and EEG records responses that reflect—and may even be caused by—activity in that structural circuit. The chain of events after stimulus delivery can be observed and quantified using current neuroimaging and TMS–EEG technology, a matter of tremendous relevance on how to approach novel therapeutic approaches in clinical conditions. Herein, we elaborate upon a perspective of how groundbreaking multi-locus TMS (mTMS) technology associated with EEG and multimodal neuroimaging can be applied to modulate the flow dynamics of the glymphatic system (GS). The enhancement of the GS waste clearance functionality has been shown to improve significantly symptom severity in neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s (AD) and Parkinson’s disease (PD) or long COVID. In this perspective paper, we consider that next-generation therapeutics using versatile technologies such as noninvasive neuromodulation and neuroimaging will provide important benefits in public health and in how society can address the management of these difficult-to-deal-with ailments more effectively.

Pandemic scenario has significantly changed several factors of life, including teaching, and learning at university. The development of suitable teaching materials to support university studies is mandatory to overcome distance learning difficulties and improve traditional teaching methodologies. This work explains a novel method for the preparation of teaching materials for medical sciences, but also plausible for other learning fields. An encephalon was extracted and prepared by using this methodology for teaching purposes. More than 200 students evaluated several factors of the material prepared this way, indicating a better understanding (up to 80%) of theoretical contents related to this human section, together with a high usability and good physical appearance