Aflatoxins (AFs) are the most important toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic fungal toxins that routinely contaminate food and feed. While more than 20 AFs have been identified to date, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1), G2 (AFG2), and M1 (AFM1) are the most common. Over 25 species of Aspergillus have been shown to produce AFs, with Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus parasiticus, and Aspergillus nomius being the most important and well-known AF-producing fungi. These ubiquitous molds can propagate on agricultural commodities to produce AFs in fields and during harvesting, processing, transportation, and storage. Countries with warmer climates and that produce foods susceptible to AF contamination shoulder a substantial portion of the global AF burden. Pakistan’s warm climate promotes the growth of toxigenic fungi, resulting in frequent AF contamination of human foods and animal feeds. The potential for contamination in Pakistan is exacerbated by improper storage conditions and a lack of regulatory limits and enforcement mechanisms. High levels of AFs in common commodities produced in Pakistan are a major food safety problem, posing serious health risks to the population. Furthermore, aflatoxin contamination contributes to economic losses by limiting exports of these commodities. In this review, recent information regarding the fungal producers of AFs, prevalence of AF contamination of foods and feed, current regulations, and AF prevention and removal strategies are summarized, with a major focus on Pakistan.

Prior to a deadly 2014 listeriosis outbreak, caramel apples were not thought to be vehicles for the foodborne pathogen Listeria monocytogenes. The purpose of this review article is to summarize what has been learned from research prompted by this outbreak. An overview of the two L. monocytogenes outbreaks related to prepackaged caramel apples, along with a brief discussion of apple sanitation and the production processes used to make caramel apples, is provided. Research suggesting ways to prevent future outbreaks arising from caramel apples is summarized. This review is based on a qualitative analysis of literature as well as interviews with current caramel apple manufacturers. Sanitation, packaging, and storage procedures used by manufacturers in the past may be insufficient to effectively inactivate L. monocytogenes in the case of product contamination. Novel apple sanitation methods and product formulations to control L. monocytogenes on caramel apples have been developed and, in some cases, implemented in commercial production.

Epidemiological data link processed meat products to various cancers, especially colorectal cancer; however,such evidence cannot prove causation. Clear mechanistic evidence of how these foods promote carcinogenesis strengthens the case for causation. Because the complexity and heterogeneity of processed meats as a food category complicate both epidemiological and mechanistic assessments, the study of carcinogenic mechanisms associated with specific components of such foods is often undertaken. These include components that are intrinsic to meats, those that contaminate meat, and those ingredients that are added to or form in meats during processing. Consumption of processed meats also leads to endogenous production of agents, epigenetic changes, and alterations in the microbiota of the digestive tract; therefore,the potential contributions of these endogenous responses to carcinogenesis are also discussed. This review highlights data that illuminate potential mechanisms by which agents associated with processed meats (including processed poultry) could contribute to carcinogenesis. The potential for personal factors such as overall diet, cooking methods, genetic variation, and inflammation and infection status to influence these carcinogenic mechanisms is also summarized. Because the intended audience of this review includes those who may be less familiar with current general mechanisms of mutagenesis and carcinogenesis, detailed background on these topics is provided.