Global fossil fuel consumption has induced emissions of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO₂), which has emanated global warming. Significant levels of CO₂ are released continually into the atmosphere from the extraction of fossil fuels to their processing and combustion for heat and power generation including the fugitive emissions from industries and unmanaged waste management practices such as open burning of solid wastes. With an increase in the global population and the subsequent rise in energy demands and waste generation, the rate of CO₂ release is at a much faster rate than its recycling through photosynthesis or fixation, which increases its net accumulation in the atmosphere. A large amount of CO₂ is emitted into the atmosphere from various sources such as the combustion of fossil fuels in power plants, vehicles and manufacturing industries. Thus, carbon capture plays a key role in the race to achieve net zero emissions, paving a path for a decarbonized economy. To reduce the carbon footprints from industrial practices and vehicular emissions and attempt to mitigate the effects of global warming, several CO₂ capturing and valorization technologies have become increasingly important. Hence, this article gives a statistical and geographical overview of CO₂ and other greenhouse gas emissions based on source and sector. The review also describes different mechanisms involved in the capture and utilization of CO₂ such as pre-combustion, post-combustion, oxy-fuels technologies, direct air capture, chemical looping combustion and gasification, ionic liquids, biological CO₂ fixation and geological CO₂ capture. The article also discusses the utilization of captured CO₂ for value-added products such as clean energy, chemicals and materials (carbonates and polycarbonates and supercritical fluids). This article also highlights certain global industries involved in progressing some promising CO₂ capture and utilization techniques.

Carbohydrate-based biodegradable films offer an eco-friendly alternative to conventional petroleum-derived packaging for agricultural commodities. Derived from renewable polysaccharides such as starch, cellulose, chitosan, pectin, alginate, pullulan, and xanthan gum, these films exhibit favorable biodegradability, film-forming ability, and compatibility with food systems. This review presents a comprehensive analysis of recent developments in the preparation, functionalization, and application of these polysaccharide-based films for agricultural packaging. Emphasis is placed on emerging fabrication techniques, including electrospinning, extrusion, and layer-by-layer assembly, which have significantly enhanced the mechanical, barrier, and antimicrobial properties of these materials. Furthermore, the incorporation of active compounds such as antioxidants and antimicrobials has improved the performance and shelf-life of packaged goods. Despite notable advancements, key limitations such as moisture sensitivity, poor mechanical durability, and high production costs persist. Strategies including polymer blending, nanofiller incorporation, and surface modification are explored as potential solutions. The applicability of these films in packaging fruits, vegetables, dairy, grains, and meat products is also discussed. By assessing current progress and future prospects, this review underscores the importance of carbohydrate-based films in promoting sustainable agricultural packaging systems, reducing environmental impact through the advancement of circular bioeconomy principles and sustainable development.

Biofuels are the sustainable counterparts of fossil fuels to meet the increasing energy demands of the current and future generations. Biofuels are produced from waste organic residues with the application of mechanical, thermochemical and biological methods and processes. While mechanical and thermochemical conversion processes involve the use of heat, pressure, catalysts and other physicochemical attributes for the direct conversion of biomass, biological conversion requires microorganisms and their enzymes as biocatalysts to degrade the fermentable substrates into biofuels and biochemicals. This article highlights the advances and opportunities in biological conversion technologies for the development of a closed-loop biorefinery approach. This review highlights the distinction between biological and thermochemical conversion technologies, including a discussion on the pros and cons of the pathways. Different categories of biological conversion processes, such as enzymatic saccharification, submerged fermentation, solid-state fermentation and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation are also discussed in this article. The main essence of this article is the description of different fermentative technologies to produce next-generation biofuels, such as bioethanol, biobutanol, biomethane, biohydrogen and biodiesel. This article provides a state-of-the-art review of the literature and a technical perspective on the bioproduction of bioethanol, acetone–ethanol–butanol fermentation, anaerobic digestion, photo/dark fermentation, and the transesterification of lignocellulosic substrates to produce the above-mentioned biofuels. In addition, recommendations for improving bioprocessing efficiency and biofuel yields are provided in this comprehensive article.

Second-generation biorefinery refers to the production of different types of biofuels, biomaterials, and biochemicals by using agri-based and other lignocellulosic biomasses as substrates, which do not compete with arable lands, water for irrigation, and food supply. From the perspective of transportation fuels, second-generation bioethanol plays a crucial role in minimizing the dependency on fossil-based fuels, especially gasoline. Significant efforts have been invested in the research and development of second-generation bioethanol for commercialization in both developing and developed countries. However, in different developing countries like India, commercialization of second-generation bioethanol has been obstructed despite the abundance and variety of agricultural feedstocks. This commercial obstruction was majorly attributed to the recalcitrance of the feedstock, by-product management, and marginal subsidies compared to other nations. This article reviews the major roadblocks to the viability and commercialization of second-generation biofuels, especially bioethanol in India and a few other leading developed and developing nations. This article also reviews the biomass availability, technological advancements, investments, policies, and scale-up potential for biorefineries. A thorough discussion is made on the prospects and barriers to research, development, and demonstration as well as strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats for the commercialization of second-generation bioethanol.