Artificial bone grafting materials such as collagen are gaining interest due to the ease of production and implantation. However, collagen must be supplemented with additional coating materials for improved osteointegration. Here, we report room-temperature atomic layer deposition (ALD) of MgO, a novel method to coat collagen membranes with MgO. Characterization techniques such as X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and electron beam dispersion mapping confirm the chemical nature of the film. Scanning electron and atomic force microscopies show the surface topography and morphology of the collagen fibers were not altered during the ALD of MgO. Slow release of magnesium ions promotes bone growth, and we show the deposited MgO film leaches trace amounts of Mg when incubated in phosphate-buffered saline at 37 °C. The coated collagen membrane had a superhydrophilic surface immediately after the deposition of MgO. The film was not toxic to human cells and demonstrated antibacterial properties against bacterial biofilms. Furthermore, in vivo studies performed on calvaria rats showed MgO-coated membranes (200 and 500 ALD) elicit a higher inflammatory response, leading to an increase in angiogenesis and a greater bone formation, mainly for Col-MgO500, compared to uncoated collagen. Based on the characterization of the MgO film and in vitro and in vivo data, the MgO-coated collagen membranes are excellent candidates for guided bone regeneration.

The effect of a novel nano-ceramic coating (TiO₂) using an atomic layer deposition (ALD) technique on the surface of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) material was investigated. The patients’ and clinicians’ perception and acceptance of the PMMA color with TiO₂ coating were also examined. In vitro color measurement was performed on thirty specimens (light, original, and dark pink) before and after TiO₂ coating. Patients’ and clinicians’ perception and acceptance of color changes on PMMA were measured and compared. Descriptive and analytic statistics were analyzed (a = 0.05). TiO₂ films were successfully deposited on the PMMA specimen by the ALD technique. Color changes after TiO₂ coating were observed on all three PMMA shades, significantly higher than the established 50:50% perceptibility threshold, but below the established 50:50% acceptability threshold. The percentage of patients that perceived a color difference after TiO₂ coating were 83.3%, 63.9%, and 77.8% for light, original, and dark pink, respectively. The percentages of clinicians that were satisfied with the color difference were 96.4%, 80%, and 69.2% for light, original, and dark pink, respectively. Color changes after TiO₂ coating were observed, but below the acceptable threshold. The clinical survey demonstrated that a color difference was perceived but was clinically acceptable. In general, laypeople have lower perception and higher acceptance of changes in PMMA color than clinicians.

Atomic layer deposition (ALD) is a vapor-phase thin-film deposition technique offering precise atomic-scale control over film thickness and conformality. Widely used across diverse fields including microelectronics, energy storage, and biomaterials, traditional optimization of ALD processes typically relies on trial-and-error experimentation or computational simulations. Recently, artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) methods have emerged as powerful tools to significantly accelerate and improve ALD process optimization, material discovery, and fundamental understanding of ALD chemistry. In this review, we highlight recent advancements in the intersection of ALD and AI/ML, examining their roles in process optimization, new material development, reaction mechanism exploration, and the application of advanced algorithms, including large language models. Additionally, we introduce a bibliometric approach to systematically collect and analyze relevant scientific literature. Finally, we outline existing challenges and provide insights into the future potential of integrating AI with ALD to drive further innovation in materials science and engineering.

Studies investigating the effect of the titanium dioxide (TiO₂) coating on the microhardness, surface roughness, Candida albicans (C albicans) adhesion, and color change of conventionally manufactured, milled, and printed denture bases are lacking. The purpose of this in vitro study was to evaluate the microhardness, surface roughness, C albicans adhesion, and color change of different TiO₂-coated and noncoated denture bases. Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) disks were fabricated using different fabrication methods: conventionally heat polymerized, milled, and 3 dimensionally (3D) printed (N=240). Half of the specimens' surfaces were coated with TiO₂ by atomic layer deposition (ALD). The microhardness of specimens was measured, yielding Vickers hardness numbers. Surface roughness was measured using a profilometer. C albicans adhesion was quantified as colony-forming units per milliliter (CFU/mL). Color difference between coated and noncoated specimens was evaluated using the CIEDE2000 formula. Factorial and 2-way ANOVA and the Pearson correlation analyses were used for statistical analyses (α=.05). The production method and the coating status of the specimens affected the microhardness, surface roughness, and C albicans adhesion (P<.001). Surface roughness and C albicans adhesion were positively correlated (P<.001, r=0.904). The color change between TiO₂-coated and noncoated specimens was affected by the color and production method (P<.001). TiO₂-coated, milled specimens demonstrated the highest microhardness, lowest surface roughness, and reduced C albicans adhesion. The original pink-colored, milled specimens showed the least color change. Milled PMMAs are processed under high pressure and temperature, resulting in lower residual monomer levels, reduced porosity, and improved material properties.

This study addresses the need for low temperature ALD of titania on organic substrates, which are thermally sensitive materials that are incompatible with ozone or plasma and too porous for practical use of water. To address these needs, tetrakis(dimethylamido) titanium (IV) was identified as the precursor for low temperature TiO2 ALD with biomaterial substrates of interest using molecular oxygen as the co-reactant. The ALD of TiO2 was performed between 90 °C and 150 °C using tetrakis(dimethylamido) titanium (IV) and oxygen. The resulting thin films were characterized in terms of thickness, optical properties, composition, and crystallinity using spectroscopic ellipsometry, x-ray reflectance, x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and x-ray diffraction, respectively. These studies show promising results for TiO2 deposition at low temperatures with growth rates comparable to ALD with other counterparts such as water and ozone. The results demonstrate the impact of trace ppm level moisture on the ALD process for TiO2 using TDMAT and molecular oxygen without excess moisture or strong co-reactants such as ozone or plasma, but giving growth rates similar to those of conventional co-reactants, opening the ALD process to more sensitive organic materials such as biomedical elastomers. From these experimental findings in comparison with prior ALD studies with similar reaction conditions, conclusions are drawn regarding the effect of trace moisture impurities on the TiO2 ALD process.