Trade‐offs are often required for an optimal and sustainable supply of competing services from forests. A study was conducted in northwest China to explore a practical trade‐off approach, for promoting the rehabilitation of service‐degraded plantation, focusing on the two main competing services of timber production and understory plant diversity conservation (expressed by understory vegetation species number [UVSN]). To describe the stand structure parameter variation with age and tree density, the logistic growth model and power function were coupled and fit with field data from 82 plots of larch (Larix principis‐rupprechetii Mayr) plantation within the estimated age range of 12–33 years. The UVSN variation with canopy density and tree density were also quantified. These models and relations developed can serve as a tool for estimating trade‐offs. The results showed that with rising tree density, the single tree timber volume decreased but the stand timber volume increased. The UVSN increased until its maximum, at the canopy density range of 0.6–0.7, and then decreased quickly. A proper tree density corresponding to the optimal canopy density of around 0.7 should be kept for maintaining higher UVSN and adequate timber production. In case of the larch plantation studied, optimal tree densities were found around 2,600, 2,000, 1,600, 1,250, and 1,000 trees/ha for the ages of 15, 20, 25, 30, and 35 years, respectively. Although only two main services were considered, the trade‐off approach developed here can be a reference for future studies to guide the rehabilitation and multifunctional management of service‐degraded plantation.

The snow leopard (Panthera uncia) is a cryptic and rare big cat inhabiting Asia’s remote and harsh elevated areas. Its population has decreased across the globe for various reasons, including human–snow leopard conflicts (HSCs). Understanding the snow leopard’s distribution range and habitat interactions with human/livestock is essential for understanding the ecological context in which HSCs occur and thus gives insights into how to mitigate HSCs. In this study, a MaxEnt model predicted the snow leopard’s potential distribution and analyzed the land use/cover to determine the habitat interactions of snow leopards with human/livestock in Karakoram–Pamir, northern Pakistan. The results indicated an excellent model performance for predicting the species’ potential distribution. The variables with higher contributions to the model were the mean diurnal temperature range (51.7%), annual temperature range (18.5%), aspect (14.2%), and land cover (6.9%). The model predicted approximately 10% of the study area as a highly suitable habitat for snow leopards. Appropriate areas included those at an altitude ranging from 2721 to 4825 m, with a mean elevation of 3796.9 ± 432 m, overlapping between suitable snow leopard habitats and human presence. The human encroachment (human settlements and agriculture) in suitable snow leopard habitat increased by 115% between 2008 and 2018. Increasing encroachment and a clear overlap between snow leopard suitable habitat and human activities, signs of growing competition between wildlife and human/livestock for limited rangeland resources, may have contributed to increasing HSCs. A sound land use plan is needed to minimize overlaps between suitable snow leopard habitat and human presence to mitigate HSCs in the long run.

Stoichiometric ratios of carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) are considered indicators of nutrient status and ultimate ecosystem health. A detailed investigation of these elements in the leaves, branches, forest layer vegetation and soil, depending on stand age, was carried out. We investigated the effects of stand age (9-, 18-, 28-, and 48-year) on the aboveground plant parts (leaf, branch, herb, shrub, plant litter) and belowground pools (soil, roots) of P. massoniana plantations. The CNP stoichiometry of trees was affected by stand age. Mean N content in the aboveground parts in the nine-yr stand was greater than the other stands (18-, 28-, 48-yr), which decreased with increasing stand age. As stands aged, the nutrient demands of the plantations increased as well as their N:P ratios in soil. C content in the soil ranged from 30 to 105, the total N was 0.06 to 1.6, and the total P content ranged from 3.3–6.4 g kg⁻¹. Soil C, N and P contents were greatly influenced by both stand age and soil depth, because surface soil sequester C and N more actively compared to deeper horizons, and more nutrients are released to the topsoil by the plant litter layer. Similarly, the ratios of other layers had a similar pattern as CNP because more nutrients were taken up by the plantations, decreasing nutrient supply in the deeper soil horizons. The green leaves N:P ratios (16) indicate limited growth of P. massoniana, as the range for global nutrient limitation for woody plants oscillated between 14–16, indicating N and P limitation. Young stands were observed to have greater P content and P resorption efficiency (56.9%–67.3%), with lower C:P and N:P ratios (704.4; 14.8). We conclude that with stand development, the nutrient demands of the plantations also increase, and soil N:P stoichiometry shows that these improve soil quality.

Forest soils have high carbon densities compared to other land-uses. Soil carbon sequestration is important to reduce CO₂ concentrations in the atmosphere. An effective climate change mitigation strategy involves limiting the emissions of greenhouse gases from soils. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is the most forested province of Pakistan, hosting about one-third of the country’s 4.5 × 10⁶ ha forest area. Soil organic carbon in the province’s forests was estimated through a field-based study carried out during 2014–17 covering the whole province. Data was collected from 373 sample plots laid out in different forest types using a stratified cluster sampling technique. The total quantity of soil organic carbon was estimated at 59.4 × 10⁶ t with an average of 52.4 ± 5.3 t/ha. About 69% of the total soil carbon is present in temperate forests. Subtropical broad-leaved and subtropical pine forests constitute 11.4% and 8.8% of the soil carbon stock respectively. Similarly, subalpine and oak forests have respective shares of 5.1% and 5.7% in the soil carbon pool. The lowest carbon stock (0.1%) was found in dry-tropical thorn forests. The highest soil carbon density was found in subalpine forests (69.5 ± 7.2 t/ha) followed by moist temperate forests (68.5 ± 6.7 t/ha) and dry temperate forests (60.7 ± 6.5 t/ha). Oak forests have carbon density of 43.4 ± 7.1 t/ha. Subtropical pine, subtropical broad-leaved and dry tropical thorn forests have soil carbon densities of 36.3 ± 3.7, 32.8 ± 6.2 and 31.5 ± 3.5 t/ha, respectively. The forests of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province have substantial amounts of soil carbon which must be conserved for climate change mitigation and maintenance of sound forest health.