Proteus spp., Staphylococcus spp., Pseudeomonas spp., and pathogenic Vibrios are among the major foodborne pathogens associated with the consumption of contaminated fish. The increasing occurrence of antimicrobial resistance in these pathogens is a serious public health concern globally and therefore continuous monitoring of antimicrobial resistance of these bacteria along the food chain is crucial for for control of foodborne illnesses. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence, antimicrobial resistance patterns, antibiotic resistance genes, and genetic diversity of bacterial foodborne pathogens recovered from fresh Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) obtained from retail markets in Nairobi, Kenya. A total of 68 O. niloticus fish with an average weight of 300.12 ± 25.66 g and body length of 23.00 ± 0.82 cm were randomly sampled from retail markets and tested for the presence of Proteus, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Vibrio cholerae, and Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Standard culture-based microbiological and Kirby–Bauer agar disk diffusion methods were used to isolate and determine the antimicrobial resistance patterns of the isolates to 11 selected antibiotics. Statistical analysis was performed using Minitab v17.1, with p < 0.05 considered significant. The genetic diversity of the multidrug-resistant (MDR) and extensively drug-resistant (XDR) bacteria was determined using 16S rRNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used for detection of antibiotic resistance genes in MDR bacterial isolates. High levels of bacterial contamination were detected in fresh O. niloticus fish (44/68, 64.71%). The most prevalent bacteria were Proteus spp. (44.12%), with the rest of the bacterial species registering a prevalence of 10.29%, 4.41%, 2.94%, and 2.94% (for S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, V. cholerae, and V. parahaemolyticus, respectively). Antimicrobial resistance was detected in all the bacteria species and all the isolates were resistant to at least one antibiotic except cefepime (30 µg). Additionally, 86.36% of the isolates exhibited multidrug resistance, with higher multiple antibiotic resistance indices (MAR index >0.3) indicating that fresh O. niloticus fish were highly contaminated with MDR bacteria. Results of 16S rRNA sequences, BLASTn analysis, and phylogenetic trees confirmed the identified MDR bacterial isolates as Proteus mirabilis and other Proteus spp., S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, V. cholerae, and V. parahaemolyticus. PCR analysis confirmed the presence of multiple antibiotic resistance genes blaTEM-1, blaCMY-2, tetA, tetC, Sul2, dfrA7, strA, and aadA belonging to β-lactamases, tetracycline, sulfonamide, trimethoprim, and aminoglycosides in all the MDR bacterial isolates. There was strong correlation between antibiotic- resistant genes and phenotypic resistance to antibiotics of MDR bacteria. This study showed high prevalence of multidrug resistance among foodborne bacterial isolates from fresh O. niloticus fish obtained from retail markets. From this study, we conclude that fresh O. niloticus fish are a potential source of MDR bacteria, which could be a major risk to public health as a consequence of their dissemination along the human food chain. These results highlight the prevalence of antimicrobial-resistant foodborne pathogens in fish purchased from retail markets and underscore the risk associated with improper handling of fish.

Africa is projected to have 2.4 billion people by 2050 and provision of healthy and nutritious diets is one of the challenges facing food systems. Food fraud is an act of deliberate adulteration and counterfeiting of food ingredients and commodities at all stages of supply chains with the aim of economic gain. Food fraud in Africa is a menace both in public health and for the economic development. Food fraud is perpetuated at all stages of the food supply chain to alter the quality of food products for economic gain or financial advantage thus threatening food safety. In addition, limited information is available on food fraud monitoring/manifestation in Africa thus hindering the prevention efforts. The standard bodies in sub-Saharan Africa countries play a vital role in combating food fraud. However, weak reporting mechanisms and regulatory systems in Africa remains a challenge in controlling food fraud. This current review explores food fraud in Africa and stakeholder (consumers, industries and regulators) challenges in the supply chain in attempt to combat food fraud. The recommendations of the review will be helpful to policymakers and scientists in improving the quality and safety of food along the supply chain, and in reducing fraud. Quality testing infrastructure and technical know-how are very important for frequent and rigorous quality control of food products and food fraud prevention. The standard and regulatory bodies in African governments need to strengthen and comply with the regulations that govern food fraud and support enforcement and food safety.

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is an important staple and food security crop to many communities in the world. However, potato production and quality is greatly constrained by bacterial wilt, a disease caused by a soil-borne pathogen, Ralstonia solanacearum. Ralstonia solanacearum can be managed through clean seed systems and therefore laboratory testing is a pre-requisite for seed certification to confirm the absence of the pathogen in potato seeds before planting. Molecular diagnostics is the gold standard for detection of R. solanacearum in potato seeds. However, the extraction of genomic DNA from R. solanacearum for molecular diagnostics is complex, tedious, lengthy and/or costly procedure. A simple, rapid and reliable DNA extraction protocol is required for use in routine molecular diagnosis of R. solanacearum, a high-risk quarantine pathogen. In this study, we developed a simple and rapid protocol for extracting genomic DNA from symptomatic and asymptomatic potato tubers infected with R. solanacearum and verified its efficiency for the detection and molecular characterization of the pathogen. The protocol was developed from the evaluation of distilled water, Tris-EDTA (TE) and Tris buffer as a base solution for tissue maceration. The DNA quantity and integrity was determined using the NanoDrop 2000C spectrophotometer and agarose gel electrophoresis, respectively. Both hot and cold solutions produced intact high molecular weight genomic DNA of sufficient yield and purity for molecular-based applications. The detection and determination of phylotypes of R. solanacearum, based on conventional and multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR), amplified the expected 280 and 372 bp amplicons, respectively, confirming that the quantity and quality of the extracted pathogen genomic DNA was sufficient for molecular diagnostic applications. The sequencing of the amplified products of the endoglucanase gene produced good quality sequences, which confirmed the R. solanacearum isolates to be members of phylotype II sequevar 1. This protocol is a simple, fast and reliable tool for the extraction of sufficient genomic DNA with high quality, directly from R. solancearum-infected potato tubers for PCR and sequencing applications. Its simplicity and throughput make it valuable for use in routine diagnostics and can be adopted by certification programs to ensure distribution of clean potato seeds to farmers.

Microbiological safety of beef meat is critical for public health, particularly due to the rising concern of antimicrobial resistance (AM) in foodborne pathogens including Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. The aim of this study was to determine the occurrence and prevalence of E. coli and Salmonella spp. in raw beef meat from abattoir and butcher shops and assess the antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of the bacterial isolates. A total of 106 beef cuts were sampled from abattoirs and randomly selected butcheries from Dagoretti sub-County, Nairobi. Antibiotic susceptibility was determined in fifty E. coli isolates and seventeen presumptive Salmonella spp. isolates using the disk diffusion method. Antibiotic resistant genes were confirmed by polymerase chain reaction amplification and multidrug-resistant (MDR) E. coli were identified by 16S rRNA sequences. The E. coli and Salmonella isolates were 100% ( n = 50 and n = 17, respectively) resistant to Ampicillin/cloxacillin, 62% ( n = 31) and 82% ( n = 14) resistant to Tetracycline, 42% ( n = 21) and 47% ( n = 8) resistant to Co-trimoxozole, 44% ( n = 22) and 58.8% ( n = 10) resistant to Erythromycin, 20% ( n = 10) and 23.5% ( n = 4) resistant to Nalidixic acid, 10% ( n = 5) and 23.5% ( n = 4) resistant to Chloramphenicol and 12% ( n = 6) and 23.5% ( n = 4) resistant to Kanamycin, respectively. Escherichia coli and Salmonella isolated from beef had high antimicrobial resistance to commonly used antibiotics. Polymerase chain amplification revealed that all the tesed E. coli and Salmonella isolates carried at least two of the screened antibiotic-resistant genes, with bla _TEM and bla _{CMY –2} present in all of them. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the eight MDR E. coli isolates were similar to E. coli strains isolated in other countries which were pathogenic E. coli . The study highlights significant antimicrobial resistance and the presence of antibiotic resistant genes in E. coli and Salmonella spp. isolates from raw beef meat. Overall, the outcome of this study regarding antimicrobial-resistant E. coli and Salmonella in beef meat samples presents a significant risk to human and animal health.

Kenya's informal sector remains excluded from formal trade due to fragmented regulation, complex standards, and the significant expansion of digital marketplaces. Drawing on market data, legislative review, and reputable literature, we identify regulatory gaps that impede compliance by informal Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs), as well as significant behavioural obstacles, including elevated perceived compliance costs, information asymmetries, and limited trust. We propose a framework featuring informal MSME-specific, graduated standards, digital market surveillance, and platform-based seller verification, all aimed at fostering trust and reducing compliance friction. By addressing both behavioural and regulatory gaps, this approach seeks to enhance consumer protection, empower informal MSMEs, and promote inclusive growth in Kenya. Future research should evaluate the framework's effectiveness and scalability in Kenya and similar contexts across Africa and beyond.