Jasmonates (JA) are important regulators of plant defense responses that activate expression of many wound-induced genes including the tomato proteinase inhibitor II (pin2) and leucine aminopeptidase (LAP) genes. Elements required for JA induction of the LAP gene are all present in the -317 to -78 proximal promoter region. Using yeast one-hybrid screening, we have identified the bHLH-leu zipper JAMYC2 and JAMYC10 proteins, specifically recognizing a T/G-box AACGTG motif in this promoter fragment. Mutation of the G-box element decreases JA-responsive LAP promoter expression. Expression of JAMYC2 and JAMYC10 is induced by JA, with a kinetics that precedes that of the LAP or pin2 transcripts. JAMYC overexpression enhanced JA-induced expression of these defense genes in potato, but did not result in constitutive transcript accumulation. Using footprinting assays, an additional protected element was identified, located directly adjacent to the T/G-box motif. Mutation of this element abolishes JA response, showing that recognition of this duplicated element is also required for gene expression. Knockout mutants in the AtMYC2 homolog gene of Arabidopsis are insensitive to JA and exhibit a decreased activation of the JA-responsive genes AtVSP and JR1. Activation of the PDF1.2 and b-CHI, ethylene/JA-responsive genes, is, however, increased in these mutants. These results show that the JAMYC/AtMYC2 transcription factors function as members of a MYC-based regulatory system conserved in dicotyledonous plants with a key role in JA-induced defense gene activation.

Pathogenicity of Pseudomonas syringae is dependent on a type III secretion system, which secretes a suite of virulence effector proteins into the host cytoplasm, and the production of a number of toxins such as coronatine (COR), which is a mimic of the plant hormone jasmonate-isoleuce (JA-Ile). Inside the plant cell, effectors target host molecules to subvert the host cell physiology and disrupt defenses. However, despite the fact that elucidating effector action is essential to understanding bacterial pathogenesis, the molecular function and host targets of the vast majority of effectors remain largely unknown. Here, we found that effector HopX1 from Pseudomonas syringae pv. tabaci (Pta) 11528, a strain that does not produce COR, interacts with and promotes the degradation of JAZ proteins, a key family of JA-repressors. We show that hopX1 encodes a cysteine protease, activity that is required for degradation of JAZs by HopX1. HopX1 associates with JAZ proteins through its central ZIM domain and degradation occurs in a COI1-independent manner. Moreover, ectopic expression of HopX1 in Arabidopsis induces the expression of JA-dependent genes, represses salicylic acid (SA)-induced markers, and complements the growth of a COR-deficient P. syringae pv. tomato (Pto) DC3000 strain during natural bacterial infections. Furthermore, HopX1 promoted susceptibility when delivered by the natural type III secretion system, to a similar extent as the addition of COR, and this effect was dependent on its catalytic activity. Altogether, our results indicate that JAZ proteins are direct targets of bacterial effectors to promote activation of JA-induced defenses and susceptibility in Arabidopsis. HopX1 illustrates a paradigm of an alternative evolutionary solution to COR with similar physiological outcome. Bacterial plant pathogens secrete toxins and inject effector proteins into the host cells to promote infection, and the identification of the individual functions of these molecules is essential to understand the infective process. Remarkably, some Pseudomonas strains have evolved a sophisticated strategy for manipulating hormonal balance by producing the toxin coronatine (COR), which mimics the plant hormone jasmonate-isoleucine (JA-Ile). The JA-Ile pathway plays a key role in plant immunity by activating defenses against fungal pathogens, while promoting bacterial growth by inhibiting the salicylic acid (SA)-dependent defenses required for Pseudomonas resistance. Here, we report that the effector HopX1 from a Pseudomonas syringae strain that does not produce COR exploits an alternative evolutionary strategy to activate the JA-Ile pathway. We show that HopX1 encodes a cysteine protease that interacts with and promotes the degradation of key JA pathway repressors, the JAZ proteins. Correspondingly, ectopically expressing HopX1 in the model plant Arabidopsis induces the expression of JA-dependent genes, and natural infection with Pseudomonas producing HopX1 promotes bacterial growth in a similar fashion to COR. Our results highlight a novel example by which a bacterial effector directly manipulates core regulators of hormone signaling to facilitate infection.

SGT1 (for suppressor of G2 allele of skp1) and RAR1 (for required for Mla12 resistance) are highly conserved eukaryotic proteins that interact with the molecular chaperone HSP90 (for heat shock protein90). In plants, SGT1, RAR1, and HSP90 are essential for disease resistance triggered by a number of resistance (R) proteins. Here, we present structural and functional characterization of plant SGT1 proteins. Random mutagenesis of Arabidopsis thaliana SGT1b revealed that its CS (for CHORD-SGT1) and SGS (for SGT1 specific) domains are essential for disease resistance. NMR-based interaction surface mapping and mutational analyses of the CS domain showed that the CHORD II domain of RAR1 and the N-terminal domain of HSP90 interact with opposite sides of the CS domain. Functional analysis of the CS mutations indicated that the interaction between SGT1 and HSP90 is required for the accumulation of Rx, a potato (Solanum tuberosum) R protein. Biochemical reconstitution experiments suggest that RAR1 may function to enhance the SGT1–HSP90 interaction by promoting ternary complex formation.

The potato (Solanum tuberosum) nucleotide binding–leucine-rich repeat immune receptor Rx confers resistance to Potato virus X (PVX) and requires Ran GTPase-activating protein 2 (RanGAP2) for effective immune signaling. Although Rx does not contain a discernible nuclear localization signal, the protein localizes to both the cytoplasm and nucleus in Nicotiana benthamiana. Transient coexpression of Rx and cytoplasmically localized RanGAP2 sequesters Rx in the cytoplasm. This relocation of the immune receptor appeared to be mediated by the physical interaction between Rx and RanGAP2 and was independent of the concomitant increased GAP activity. Coexpression with RanGAP2 also potentiates Rx-mediated immune signaling, leading to a hypersensitive response (HR) and enhanced resistance to PVX. Besides sequestration, RanGAP2 also stabilizes Rx, a process that likely contributes to enhanced defense signaling. Strikingly, coexpression of Rx with the Rx-interacting WPP domain of RanGAP2 fused to a nuclear localization signal leads to hyperaccumulation of both the WPP domain and Rx in the nucleus. As a consequence, both Rx-mediated resistance to PVX and the HR induced by auto-active Rx mutants are significantly suppressed. These data show that a balanced nucleocytoplasmic partitioning of Rx is required for proper regulation of defense signaling. Furthermore, our data indicate that RanGAP2 regulates this partitioning by serving as a cytoplasmic retention factor for Rx.