Fruits and vegetables have been identified as vehicles for the transmission of pathogenic antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) microorganisms. This is of food safety concern, thus requiring continuous surveillance. This study aimed to profile AMR bacteria present in selected fruits and vegetables retailed in markets and from home gardens (HGs) in Oyo, Ogun, and Ekiti states, Nigeria. Watermelon, cucumber, tomato, and garden egg samples were collected and analyzed using standard microbiological procedures. The susceptibility of the isolates to eight antibiotics was determined. Multidrug-resistant isolates were screened for the presence of AMR genes by polymerase chain reaction. Fifty three bacteria were isolated and identified, belonging to the genera Bacillus, Corynebacterium, Listeria, Aeromonas, Enterobacter, Erwinia, Salmonella, Serratia, Shigella, and Vibrio. Thirty six (67.93%) isolates demonstrated phenotypic resistance to five of the eight antibiotics tested, being the most prevalent pattern observed. Bla_TEM and bla_CTX-M were detected in Salmonella enterica from retailed tomato, bla_TEM, bla_SHV, bla_CTX-M, and erm(B) were detected in Listeria monocytogenes from retailed watermelon, bla_SHV and bla_CTX-M were detected in Bacillus cereus from retailed tomato, while bla_TEM, bla_SHV, bla_CTX-M, and erm(F) were detected in Staphylococcus aureus isolated in garden egg from HG. The presence of multidrug-resistant pathogens in fruits and vegetables could pose a huge food safety and public health risk.

Consumption of fruits and vegetables which are known to be highly nutritious has been linked to foodborne disease outbreaks which constitute food safety and public concern. This study aimed to assess the safety of selected fruits and vegetables from fruit markets and home gardens, within the South-West region of Nigeria. A total of fifty-three (53) samples of watermelon, cucumber, tomatoes and garden eggs were collected and subjected to microbiological analysis. Isolated bacteria were screened for their pathogenicity and spoilage potential using haemolysis and amylase production tests respectively. A total of 146 bacteria were isolated, 75 (45.7%) were from retail samples and 71 (43.3%) from the home garden. The genera: Bacillus (15.9%), Corynebacterium (11.0%), Lactobacillus (1.2%), Listeria (1.8%), Staphylococcus (12.8%), Enterococcus (1.2%), Micrococcus (1.2%), Acinetobacter (3.7%), Aeromonas (2.4%), Alcaligenes (0.6%), Brucella (0.6%), Vibrio (0.6%), and the family Enterobacteriaceae (36.0%) were identified. Isolates with haemolytic potentials were 51 (31%) while 49 (30%) could cause spoilage. The overall microbiological quality and safety of fruit and vegetable samples analysed in this study is low, as they were contaminated by diverse pathogenic, and spoilage microorganisms. The presence of these pathogens in retailed and home garden fruits and vegetables is a pointer to public health risks and food safety threats. Hence, the need for improved hygienic practice through training handlers along the supply chain.

Riboflavin (vitamin B₂) is a water-soluble compound that plays an important role in multiple cellular functions. This study evaluates the probiotic potential of riboflavin-overproducing Bacillus subtilis strains isolated from fermented African locust beans. After strain improvement, B. subtilis ACU-I11MR and ACU-I163MR were selected due to their higher riboflavin production (0.01905±0.0005 mg l⁻¹ to 0.0259±0.0077 mg l⁻¹ and 0.0195±0.0054 mg l⁻¹ to 0.0267±0.0013 mg l⁻¹, respectively). Their safety was confirmed through haemolytic assay, antibiotic susceptibility tests and the absence of gelatinase and biogenic amine activity. Probiotic potential was assessed via in vitro assays including resistance to low pH, bile salts, phenol, temperature and NaCl; auto-aggregation; cell hydrophobicity; biofilm formation; antibacterial activity; and enzyme and exopolysaccharide production. Both strains were non-haemolytic and negative for gelatinase and biogenic amine activity. They showed significant viability at pH 2 (survival 85.05; 87.09%), 1% bile salts (survival 88.82; 87.64%) and 0.5% phenol (survival 48.80; 59.52%), respectively. ACU-I11MR was susceptible to 9 out of 12 antibiotics, while ACU-I163MR was 100% susceptible. The strains demonstrated strong cell surface adhesion and auto-aggregation and inhibited several pathogenic bacteria. They produce amylase, protease and exopolysaccharide and thrive under various temperature and NaCl conditions. B. subtilis ACU-I163MR, showing superior probiotic potential, could be a promising candidate for developing riboflavin-enriched Bacillus-fermented functional foods.

The global rise in antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses an urgent threat to public health, and novel alternatives to traditional antibiotics are needed. One of the most promising options is bacteriophages, viruses that infect and destroy bacteria. Once overshadowed by the discovery of antibiotics, phage therapy is now regaining attention, driven by advances in genomics, synthetic biology, and targeted medicine. This review examines the biology, diversity, and therapeutic use of bacteriophages in treating bacterial infections, especially those caused by multidrug-resistant pathogens. It also discusses how phages act through natural mechanisms, such as lytic enzymes (holins, endolysins, and muralysins), and highlights new genetic engineering techniques, such as CRISPR-Cas systems, phage recombineering, and synthetic genome reboots. In addition to clinical applications, we evaluate phages as biocontrol agents for food safety, environmental sanitation, and biofilm management. Additionally, the article explores key issues in phage therapy, including regulatory frameworks, formulation stability, dynamics of phage-host resistance, and the importance of rapid diagnosis. When properly integrated into modern health and biotechnology practices, bacteriophages offer significant potential and a sustainable solution to the global challenge of antimicrobial resistance.

Cereal grains such as maize (Zea mays), millet (Pennisetum glaucum), and wheat (Triticum aestivum) are essential dietary staples in Nigeria, yet their nutr