Water pollution is considered a serious threat to human life. An advanced oxidation process in the presence of semiconductor photocatalysts is a popular method for the effective decomposition of organic pollutants from wastewater. TiO₂ nanoparticles are widely used as photocatalysts due to their low cost, chemical stability, environmental compatibility and significant efficiency. The aim of this study is to review the photocatalytic processes and their mechanism, reaction kinetics, optical and electrical properties of semiconductors and unique characteristics of titanium as the most widely used photocatalyst; and to compare the photocatalytic activity between different titania phases (anatase, rutile, and brookite) and between colorful and white TiO₂ nanoparticles. Photocatalytic processes are based on the creation of electron–hole pairs. Therefore, increasing stability and separation of charge carriers could improve the photocatalytic activity. The synthesis method has a significant effect on the intensity of photocatalytic activity. The increase in the density of surface hydroxyls as well as the significant mobility of the electron–hole pairs in the anatase phase increases its photocatalytic activity compared to other phases. Electronic and structural changes lead to the synthesis of colored titania with different photocatalytic properties. Among colored titania materials, black TiO₂ showed promising photocatalytic activity due to the formation of surface defects including oxygen vacancies, increasing the interaction with the light irradiation and the lifetime of photogenerated electron–hole pairs. Among non-metal elements, nitrogen doping could be effectively used to drive visible light-activated TiO₂.

Pharmaceuticals are widely used and often discharged without metabolism into the aquatic systems. The photocatalytic degradation of pharmaceutical compounds propranolol, mebeverine, and carbamazepine was studied using different titanium dioxide nanostructures suspended in water under UV and UV-visible irradiation. Among three different photocatalysts, the degradation was most effective by using Degussa P25 TiO₂, followed by Hombikat UV100 and Aldrich TiO₂. The photocatalytic performance was dependent on photocatalyst dosage, with an optimum concentration of 150 mg L⁻¹. The natural aquatic colloids were shown to enhance the extent of photocatalysis, and the effect was correlated with their aromatic carbon content. In addition, the photocatalysis of pharmaceuticals was enhanced by the presence of nitrate, but inhibited by the presence of 2-propanol, indicating the importance of hydroxyl radicals. Under optimum conditions, the pharmaceuticals were rapidly degraded, with a half-life of 1.9 min, 2.1 min, and 3.2 min for propranolol, mebeverine, and carbamazepine, respectively. In treating sewage effluent samples, the photocatalytic rate constants for propranolol (0.28 min⁻¹), mebeverine (0.21 min⁻¹), and carbamazepine (0.15 min⁻¹) were similar to those in water samples, demonstrating the potential of photocatalysis as a clean technology for the effective removal of pharmaceuticals from sewage effluent.