In the past decade, the usage of soft materials, like gels, has allowed for a better control of the water release process into the substrate for cleaning interventions. Agar—a natural polysaccharide harvested from algae—has been used to perform cleaning of stone materials, gypsum works, and paintings with remarkably positive results. Agar presents the great advantage of being cheap, easily available, fast to produce and not toxic, allowing for more sustainable conservation works. More recently, a new type of agar fluid, agar foam, promises further control of the water release and ease of application on delicate surfaces. In the present study, this new type of agar, CO₂ and N₂O foams, has been characterized and compared with the conventional sol/gel agar system. Moreover, the cleaning effectiveness of the agar foam was tested both in laboratory conditions and in two case studies: a historical gypsum from the porch framing of the Abbey of Nonantola, and the 20th century gypsum cast of the Pietà Rondanini by Michelangelo, located in the Sforza Castle in Milan. The obtained results show that foaming changes the sol-gel transition temperature of the agar gel as well as incrementing its dissipative behavior. When freshly applied, the foams flow with a reduced velocity, thus allowing a better control and ease of application. Once gelified, they act as a soft solid-like material, as shown by their rheological properties. Moreover, it was found that CO₂ foam slightly reduces the water release to the surface, while maintaining the moldability and ease of application. The study allows for the conclusion that agar foam offers an interesting alternative for delicate surfaces, with a non-coherent mineral deposit, and with complex geometries that often represent a challenge for the conventional agar applications

Contemporary murals are highly susceptible to rapid color fading due to outdoor urban exposure. This study investigates the photodegradation mechanisms affecting synthetic organic pigments (SOPs) and commercial acrylic–vinyl paints under simulated visible light exposure. Artificial aging experiments were conducted on two types of systems: (a) pigment pellets, composed of pre-fixed pigments on mineral bases, as supplied by the manufacturer, and (b) commercial paints applied on glass substrates. Both systems were aged under controlled and uncontrolled relative humidity (RH) conditions. Colorimetric analyses revealed significant color fading, particularly in pigments PR112, PO5, and PV23. Vibrational spectroscopies highlighted the reduction in pigment-related bands after aging, indicating SOPs’ vulnerability to photodegradation. In paint mock-ups, FTIR-ATR measurements indicated binder degradation and an increase in signals from inorganic fillers. A superficial layer enriched in inorganic components was investigated non-invasively by Micro Spatially Offset Raman spectroscopy (Micro-SORS) in the beamsteer modality. It highlighted a gradient of calcite to pigment with depth. These findings indicate that color fading in mural paints results from the combined degradation of both pigments and binders.

The San Carlo Colossus, known as San Carlone, is a monument constituted by an internal stone pillar support to which a wrought iron structure is attached. Embossed copper sheets are fixed to the iron structure to give the final shape to the monument. After more than 300 years of outdoor exposure, this statue represents an opportunity for an in-depth investigation of long-term galvanic coupling between wrought iron and copper. Most iron elements of the San Carlone appeared in good conservation conditions with scarce evidence of galvanic corrosion. In some cases, the same iron bars presented some portions in good conservation conditions and other nearby portions with active corrosion. The aim of the present study was to investigate the possible factors correlated with such mild galvanic corrosion of wrought iron elements despite the widespread direct contact with copper for more than 300 years. Optical and electronic microscopy and compositional analyses were carried out on representative samples. Furthermore, polarisation resistance measurements were performed both on-site and in a laboratory. The results revealed that the iron bulk composition showed a ferritic microstructure with coarse grains. On the other hand, the surface corrosion products were mainly composed of goethite and lepidocrocite. Electrochemical analyses showed good corrosion resistance of both the bulk and surface of the wrought iron, and galvanic corrosion is not occurring probably due to the iron’s relatively noble corrosion potential. The few areas where iron corrosion was observed are apparently related to environmental factors, such as the presence of thick deposits and to the presence of hygroscopic deposits that create localized microclimatic conditions on the surface of the monument.

The Colossus of San Carlo Borromeo, named San Carlone for its large dimensions, represents a unique opportunity to study the long-term effects of atmospheric corrosion on patina formation on historic copper sheets. The sculpture’s large dimensions, complex geometry, direct visitor interaction, and exposure conditions generate different microclimates. The purpose of this study is to understand how and to what extent these microclimates affect the formation of the copper patinas. The results show that microclimates play a key role in patina formation: in external surfaces exposed to rain, the main constituent is brochantite, whereas a wider variety of corrosion products have been found in sheltered and internal surfaces, such as antlerite, atacamite, copper oxalate, posnjakite, and anglesite.

Restoration of historical buildings contributes to the preservation of history and identity of the cities, but also, in the current climate crisis, an alternative solution to reduce the environmental impact of the construction sector, which is one of the main global contributors to green-house gas emissions and waste production. It can be also claimed that the most sustainable building is the one that has already been built. An important aspect to consider for the restoration of built heritage is the use of compatible materials, such as lime-based mortars, that should be preferred over cement. However, their slow setting and hardening (via carbonation), and, in some cases, poor durability prevent their full acceptance and widespread use. One course of action is to improve the quality of the binder via an innovative approach: inclusion of natural organic additives during the slaking process of CaO. This is expected to have a higher impact than their inclusion in the mortar’s mix design. In the present work the analysis of the growth of Ca(OH)₂ crystals following their crystallization in the presence of micro- and nano-cellulose is studied, together with the morphological changes that these additives induce on portlandite crystals. Moreover, the study of the carbonation kinetics of the modified portlandite crystals gives insights on the effect that these additives have on the quality of the binder. The promising results highlight the potential of micro- and nano-cellulose as sustainable additives for lime-based binders. Furthermore, these additives can be obtained from industrial wastes, promoting a circular economy.

This study explores the early detection of degradation in plastic-based cultural heritage objects using non-invasive spectroscopic techniques. The results on artificially aged ABS specimens revealed degradation markers at low exposure levels. Changes in polymer composition were then correlated with mechanical stiffening and increased friction. The approach offers valuable tools for in situ monitoring and preventive conservation of modern art and design objects.