Bacteria from the species Trueperella pyogenes are a part of the biota of skin and mucous membranes of the upper respiratory, gastrointestinal, or urogenital tracts of animals, but also, opportunistic pathogens. T. pyogenes causes a variety of purulent infections, such as metritis, mastitis, pneumonia, and abscesses, which, in livestock breeding, generate significant economic losses. Although this species has been known for a long time, many questions concerning the mechanisms of infection pathogenesis, as well as reservoirs and routes of transmission of bacteria, remain poorly understood. Pyolysin is a major known virulence factor of T. pyogenes that belongs to the family of cholesterol-dependent cytolysins. Its cytolytic activity is associated with transmembrane pore formation. Other putative virulence factors, including neuraminidases, extracellular matrix-binding proteins, fimbriae, and biofilm formation ability, contribute to the adhesion and colonization of the host tissues. However, data about the pathogen–host interactions that may be involved in the development of T. pyogenes infection are still limited. The aim of this review is to present the current knowledge about the pathogenic potential and virulence of T. pyogenes.

From the beginning of the 21st century Enterococcus cecorum has emerged as a significant health problem for poultry raised under intensive production systems. To obtain new insights into this bacterial species, we investigated 82 clinical isolates originating from different poultry flocks in Poland between 2011 and 2014. Phenotypically, isolates from clinical cases showed ability to growth at low temperatures (4 °C, 10 °C), and differences in growth at 45 °C (74.4 %). Survival at high temperatures (60 °C, 70 °C) was observed for 15, 30 min. More than half of strains survived at 60 °C even after prolonged incubation (1 h), but none survived after 1 h at 70 °C. Total growth inhibition was observed on agar supplemented with tergitol or potassium tellurite. Relatively high number of isolates gave positive reactions for β-galactosidase (βGAL 80 %), Voges Proskauer test (60 %), less for β-mannosidase (17 %), glycogen and mannitol (12 %). The metabolic fingerprinting for E. cecorum obtained in Biolog system revealed ability to metabolise 22 carbon sources. Only 27/82 strains contained ≥ 1 virulence genes of tested 7, however 2.4 % isolates carried 6. Increased antimicrobial resistance was observed to enrofloxacin (87 %), teicoplanin (85 %), doxycycline (83 %), erythromycin (46 %). Most strains (75/82) showed multidrug resistance. The single isolate was resistant to vancomycin (VRE) and high level gentamicin (HLGR). Linezolid resistance among clinical isolates was not found. PFGE revealed diversity of E. cecorum from cases. It could be assumed that transmission of pathogenic strains between flocks regardless of type of production or geographical region may be possible. Clinical infections in poultry caused by E. cecorum may indicated on new properties of this bacterial species, previously known as a commensal. Despite many common phenotypic features, differences were found among clinical isolates. Several, widely distributed pathogenic E. cecorum strains seemed to be responsible for infection cases found in different poultry types.

The antimicrobial susceptibility of Escherichia coli isolates associated with various types of infections in dogs and cats was determined. The studied isolates were most frequently susceptible to fluoroquinolones and the extended‐spectrum cephalosporins (ESCs), antimicrobials commonly used in treatment of infections in companion animals. However, an increase in the percentage of strains resistant to β‐lactam antibiotics including ESCs was noted between January 2007 and December 2013. The frequency of multidrug‐resistant (MDR) E. coli isolation (66.8% of isolates) is alarming. Moreover, the statistically significant increase of the percentage of MDR isolates was observed during the study period. No difference in the prevalence of multidrug resistance was found between bacteria causing intestinal and extraintestinal infections and between canine and feline isolates. Nonhemolytic E. coli isolates were MDR more often than hemolytic ones. Our study showed the companion animals in Poland as an important reservoir of MDR bacteria. These results indicate that continuous monitoring of canine and feline E. coli antimicrobial susceptibility is required. Furthermore, introduction and application of recommendations for appropriate use of antimicrobials in small animal practice should be essential to minimize the emergence of multidrug resistance among E. coli in companion animals.

Enterococcus cecorum (EC) is known as a commensal in the intestines of mammals and birds. However, it has been described as an emerging pathogen in poultry industry worldwide. The aim of this study was to analyze and compare EC isolated from clinical material collected from poultry groups with different production purposes. The genetic diversity among pathogenic EC in relation to each specific poultry type was examined. In total, 148 isolates from independent infection outbreaks (2011–2016) were used: 76 broiler chickens (CB), 37 broiler breeders (BB), 23 layers (CL), 7 waterfowl (W) and 5 turkey (T) flocks (1 isolate/1 flock). We provided age ranges at diagnosis of EC-infection for 5 poultry groups. Isolates obtained from CB were significantly more frequently retrieved from bone marrow, joints, spine, and contrary to BB, CL less frequently retrieved from respiratory system. The study showed differences between EC of various poultry types in relation to 10/32 (31.3%) biochemical parameters. EC isolates from CB were significantly more often positive for βGAL, βNAG, MLZ, and less often positive for PAL and βMAN than isolates from other poultry types. However, BB and W isolates showed higher ability to metabolise mannitol than CB, CL, and T. CB isolates showed lower ability to survive at 60°C. Only chicken EC-isolates harbored virulence genes: CB (8.1%) > BB (3.4%) > CL (2%). No specific pulsotype of EC was associated with a specific poultry. One or several various (up to 6) genetic types of EC may be involved in outbreaks in CB flocks within one year in one region. Outbreaks reported in following years in the same region were usually caused by a distinct set of EC-genetic types. PFGE results indicated at the genetic heterogeneity among pathogenic isolates involved in outbreaks in relation to each poultry type. To our best knowledge, this is the first study which provides a comparison between clinical EC from 5 poultry groups. The study provides a new insight into EC as pathogen of different bird species. The obtained data may be useful in further studies on EC-infections more focused on a specific type of poultry.

Background: This study was aimed to investigate the intestinal microbiota in racing pigeons with regard to Enterococcus species distribution, virulence factors and antibiotic susceptibility. Three methods (API, Multiplex sodA-PCR, 16S rRNA sequencing) were compared for Enterococcus species identification. Cloacal samples from 179 apparently healthy pigeons of 13 different flocks were tested. Results: Multiplex sodA-PCR and 16S rRNA gene sequencing showed almost perfect agreement in Enterococcus species identification. Isolates were identified as Enterococcus columbae (34.5%), Enterococcus hirae (20.7%), Enterococcus faecalis (11.7%), Enterococcus faecium (11.7%), Enterococcus gallinarum (9%), Enterococcus mundtii (4.8%), Enterococcus casseliflavus (3.4%), Enterococcus cecorum (2.1%), Enterococcus durans (2.1%). More Enterococcus species were found after the race season than before. The study showed differences between Enterococcus species in relation to 68.8% (22/32) biochemical parameters. Six out of seven virulence genes were detected: gelE (43.5%), asa1 (42.1%), efaA (30.3%), ace (30.3%), cylA (27.6%), and esp (9%). None of the isolates harboured hyl gene. Overall 15.2% of Enterococcus isolates produced gelatinase, but 66.7% gelE genes were silent. Enterococcus faecalis showed the most often efaA, ace and gelatinase activity than other enterococcal species. Nearly all isolates (93.1%) were resistant to at least one antibiotic. The most frequent resistance was to enrofloxacin (80%), doxycycline with teicoplanin (73.1%), erythromycin (49.7%). The study revealed significant differences between some enterococcal species in the antibiotic susceptibility to different antibiotics. Enterococcus columbae and E. cecorum showed significantly more frequent resistance to chloramphenicol than other enterococci. The presence of VRE (19.3%), HLGR (2.8%) and no LRE were found. Overall 30.3% of isolates were positive for vancomycin resistance genes, where vanC1 (E. gallinarum), vanC2-C3 (E. hirae, E. casseliflavus), vanB (E. columbae) predominated. Conclusions: We conclude, that intestinal microbiota in racing pigeons is composed by 9 different Enterococcus species. Given that racing pigeons are kept in close contact with humans and backyard animals, combined with their long-distance flight abilities, they can serve as potential source of virulent and antibiotic resistant Enterococcus spp. in the environment.