Burning candles show the solid and liquid states of wax on a macroscopic level. With augmented reality, the submicroscopic and symbolic level of all three states of wax can be shown. The augmented reality environment developed in this study lets students test their knowledge about the position of the three states of wax. So far, how the design parameters of augmented reality learning environments influence users’ eye movement and learning performance has not been researched. Twenty-three German students between the ages of 9 and 15 form the randomized sample of this study with three different groups. AR learning scenarios were created, varying only in one design parameter: ‘congruence with reality’. Our analysis using audio, video, and eye-tracking data showed that all the participants learned mostly the same and that the participants who saw the real experiment on screen experienced the highest degree of immersion. This study indicates that the presented AR learning environment is an opportunity to learn about what exact part of a candle is burning with the submicroscopic level shown in comparison; before using the learning environment, the students were uncertain about what substance burns when a candle is lit and what function the wick has. This study suggests teachers should think about implementing learning environments such as this to help students connect different levels of representation.

Augmented reality (AR) improves science education by facilitating teaching and experiments in schools and universities. Studies show positive effects, like increased motivation and improved concept connections, but there is a lack of consistency in the implementation and investigation of AR in science experiments. This review examines AR usage, criteria, design parameters for the development of AR applications and the validation methods, taking into account the PRISMA guidelines. A Web of Science database search using “Publish or Perish” software (version 23.4.0) identified 247 potentially relevant articles from 2000 to March 2024 in international, peer-reviewed journals. After removing duplicates, inaccessible abstracts, and applying inclusion and exclusion criteria, 40 studies were selected for in-depth analysis. Physics had the most AR applications, primarily for visualizing invisible properties. Most studies used quantitative or qualitative methods, only a few used both or did not conduct empirical research. Research questions varied, but common drawbacks included small sample sizes and low use of AR design parameters such as interactivity, adaptivity, realistic representation and use of game elements. This review identifies opportunities for improvement in the implementation and investigation of AR in science education experiments and emphasizes consistent and rigorous approaches to fully exploit the benefits of AR in science education.

Augmented reality (AR) is vital in education for enhancing learning and motivation through interactive environments and experiments. This requires teacher training in AR creation and integration. Research indicates that learning effectiveness relies on thorough preparation, calling for the development of scoring rubrics for evaluating both educational AR and AR’s educational integration. However, no current studies provide such a rubric for assessing AR’s pedagogical implementation. Hence, a scoring rubric, EVAR (Evaluating Augmented Reality in Education), was developed based on the framework for the analysis and development of augmented reality in science and engineering teaching by Czok and colleagues, and extended with core concepts of instructional design and lesson organization, featuring 18 items in five subscales rated on a four-point Likert scale. To evaluate the validity and reliability of the scoring rubric, AR learning scenarios, designed by eleven master’s seminar pre-service teacher students at the University of Konstanz, majoring in biology, chemistry, or physics, were assessed by five AR experts using the newly developed scoring rubric. The results reveal that a simple classification of AR characteristics is insufficient for evaluating its pedagogical quality in learning scenarios. Instead, the newly developed scoring rubric for evaluating AR in educational settings showed high inter-rater reliability and can discriminate between different groups according to the educational quality of the AR and the implementation of AR into lesson planning.

As the use of handheld devices continues to proliferate in both private and educational sectors, critical questions emerge concerning the end-of-life management of materials and strategies to curtail waste generation. Augmented reality (AR) technology presents novel avenues for engaging students in science education. This paper presents a novel didactic methodology through a tablet-based, digitally enriched learning scenario that focuses on the properties, synthesis, substitution, and recycling of plastics, particularly in the context of iPads. The scenario utilizes AR technology to provide new perspectives on plastics’ chemistry, fostering interest and understanding. Additionally, the present study employs quantitative methods to investigate the impact on situational interest and understanding concerning learning with iPads and learning about plastics used in iPads on students. The analysis also includes an examination of attitudes toward learning experiences based on AR. A total of 65 secondary students participated in the study. The findings contribute to the ongoing debate on context-based learning and its impact on students’ interest and engagement in science education.