The manner in which high-impact, life-saving health interventions reach populations in need is a critical dimension of health system performance. Intervention coverage has been a standard metric for such performance. To better understand and address the decay of intervention effectiveness in real-world health systems, the more complex measure of “effective coverage” is required, which includes the health gain the health system could potentially deliver. We have carried out a narrative review to trace the origins, timeline, and evolution of the concept of effective coverage metrics to illuminate potential improvements in coherence, terminology, application, and visualizations, based on which a combination of approaches appears to have the most influence on policy and practice. We found that the World Health Organization first proposed the concept over 45 years ago. It became increasingly popular with the further development of theoretical underpinnings, and after the introduction of quantification and visualization tools. The approach has been applied in low- and middle-income countries, mainly for HIV/AIDS, TB, malaria, child health interventions, and more recently for non-communicable diseases, particularly diabetes and hypertension. Nevertheless, despite decades of application of effective coverage concepts, there is considerable variability in the terminology used and the choices of effectiveness decay steps included in the measures. Results frequently illustrate a profound loss of service effectiveness due to health system factors. However, policy and practice rarely address these factors, and instead favour narrowly targeted technical interventions.

Complexity is inherent to any system or program. This is especially true of integrated interventions, such as integrated community case management (iCCM). iCCM is a child health strategy designed to provide services through community health workers (CHWs) within hard-to-reach areas of low-and-middle-income countries (LMICs). It is comprised of many interlinked program components, processes and stakeholders. Elucidating the complexity of such programs is essential to designing interventions that respond to local contexts and successfully plan for sustainable integration. A pragmatic approach has yet to be developed that holistically assesses the many dimensions of iCCM or other integrated programs, their alignment with local systems, and how well they provide effective care. We propose an accessible systems approach to both measuring systems effectiveness and assessing its underlying complexity using a combination of systems thinking tools. We propose an effectiveness decay model for iCCM implementation to measure where patient loss occurs along the trajectory of care. The approach uses process mapping to examine critical bottlenecks of iCCM processes, their influence on effectiveness decay, and their integration into local systems; regression analysis and structural equation modeling to determine effects of key indicators on programmatic outcomes; and qualitative analysis with causal loop diagramming to assess stakeholder dynamics and their interactions within the iCCM program. An accurate assessment of the quality, effectiveness, and strength of community-based interventions relies on more than measuring core indicators and program outcomes; it requires an exploration of how its actors and core components interact as part of a system. Our approach produces an interactive iCCM effectiveness decay model to understand patient loss in context, examines key systems issues, and uses a range of systems thinking tools to assess the dynamic interactions that coalesce to produce observed program outcomes.

Community health workers (CHW) usually refer children with suspected severe malaria to the nearest public health facility or a designated public referral health facility (RHF). Caregivers do not always follow this recommendation. This study aimed at identifying post-referral treatment-seeking pathways that lead to appropriate antimalarial treatment for children less than five years with suspected severe malaria. An observational study in Uganda enrolled children below five years presenting to CHWs with signs of severe malaria. Children were followed up 28 days after enrolment to assess their condition and treatment-seeking history, including referral advice and provision of antimalarial treatment from visited providers. Of 2211 children included in the analysis, 96% visited a second provider after attending a CHW. The majority of CHWs recommended caregivers to take their child to a designated RHF (65%); however, only 59% followed this recommendation. Many children were brought to a private clinic (33%), even though CHWs rarely recommended this type of provider (3%). Children who were brought to a private clinic were more likely to receive an injection than children brought to a RHF (78% vs 51%, p<0.001) and more likely to receive the second or third-line injectable antimalarial (artemether: 22% vs. 2%, p<0.001, quinine: 12% vs. 3%, p<0.001). Children who only went to non-RHF providers were less likely to receive an artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) than children who attended a RHF (odds ratio [OR] = 0.64, 95% CI 0.51–0.79, p<0.001). Children who did not go to any provider after seeing a CHW were the least likely to receive an ACT (OR = 0.21, 95% CI 0.14–0.34, p<0.001). Health policies should recognise local treatment-seeking practices and ensure adequate quality of care at the various public and private sector providers where caregivers of children with suspected severe malaria actually seek care.

Introduction Almost all sub-Saharan African countries have adopted some form of integrated community case management (iCCM) to reduce child mortality, a strategy targeting common childhood diseases in hard-to-reach communities. These programs are complex, maintain diverse implementation typologies and involve many components that can influence the potential success of a program or its ability to effectively perform at scale. While tools and methods exist to support the design and implementation of iCCM and measure its progress, these may not holistically consider some of its key components, which can include program structure, setting context and the interplay between community, human resources, program inputs and health system processes. Methods We propose a Global South-driven, systems-based framework that aims to capture these different elements and expand on the fundamental domains of iCCM program implementation. We conducted a content analysis developing a code frame based on iCCM literature, a review of policy documents and discussions with key informants. The framework development was guided by a combination of health systems conceptual frameworks and iCCM indices. Results The resulting framework yielded 10 thematic domains comprising 106 categories. These are complemented by a catalogue of critical questions that program designers, implementers and evaluators can ask at various stages of program development to stimulate meaningful discussion and explore the potential implications of implementation in decentralised settings. Conclusion The iCCM Systems Framework proposed here aims to complement existing intervention benchmarks and indicators by expanding the scope and depth of the thematic components that comprise it. Its elements can also be adapted for other complex community interventions. While not exhaustive, the framework is intended to highlight the many forces involved in iCCM to help managers better harmonise the organisation and evaluation of their programs and examine their interactions within the larger health system.

Introduction Community health workers (CHW) usually refer children with suspected severe malaria to the nearest public health facility or a designated public referral health facility (RHF). Caregivers do not always follow this recommendation. This study aimed at identifying post-referral treatment-seeking pathways that lead to appropriate antimalarial treatment for children less than five years with suspected severe malaria. Methods An observational study in Uganda enrolled children below five years presenting to CHWs with signs of severe malaria. Children were followed up 28 days after enrolment to assess their condition and treatment-seeking history, including referral advice and provision of antimalarial treatment from visited providers. Results Of 2211 children included in the analysis, 96% visited a second provider after attending a CHW. The majority of CHWs recommended caregivers to take their child to a designated RHF (65%); however, only 59% followed this recommendation. Many children were brought to a private clinic (33%), even though CHWs rarely recommended this type of provider (3%). Children who were brought to a private clinic were more likely to receive an injection than children brought to a RHF (78% vs 51%, p<0.001) and more likely to receive the second or third-line injectable antimalarial (artemether: 22% vs. 2%, p<0.001, quinine: 12% vs. 3%, p<0.001). Children who only went to non-RHF providers were less likely to receive an artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) than children who attended a RHF (odds ratio [OR] = 0.64, 95% CI 0.51–0.79, p<0.001). Children who did not go to any provider after seeing a CHW were the least likely to receive an ACT (OR = 0.21, 95% CI 0.14–0.34, p<0.001). Conclusions Health policies should recognise local treatment-seeking practices and ensure adequate quality of care at the various public and private sector providers where caregivers of children with suspected severe malaria actually seek care.

Background: Integrated community case management (iCCM) is a community-based child health strategy designed to reduce deaths due to pneumonia, malaria, and diarrhea in low-income countries. Due to the integrated nature of the intervention and the diversity of its stakeholders and activities, iCCM is complex and comprises many systems elements. However, the extent to which studies examine these different elements is unknown. The purpose of this scoping review is to summarize the key areas of emphasis of the iCCM literature and assess the extent to which this takes into account systems complexity. Methods: This study will be guided by Arksey and O’Malley’s scoping review methodology. We will systematically screen MEDLINE, Web of Science, and the specialized platform Community Case Management (CCM) Central Library for published literature in English related to the design, implementation, and evaluation of iCCM. Two investigators will independently screen the full list of titles and abstracts for eligibility, followed by a full-text review of selected titles divided between investigators. Emergent themes will be categorized according to a thematic tool iteratively developed to guide the charting and analysis process. To compare the extent to which the literature assesses systems factors, we will compare our results with the iCCM Interagency Framework. We will use the Intervention Complexity Tool for Systematic Reviews (iCAT_SR) to assess how literature measures complexity. Results will be presented in narrative fashion, supplemented by interactive graphical interfaces. Discussion: The results of this scoping review will identify the priorities and deficiencies of the analysis and evaluation of iCCM programs and may illustrate the need for systems approaches. Bottom-up emergent iCCM themes can help researchers, policymakers, and implementers target and better emphasize true priorities of iCCM. Understanding how complexity is considered and examined in iCCM may result in greater attention to this critical dimension of iCCM program assessment, resulting in the design and development of more robust and sustainable iCCM programs.