The human population is growing and urbanising. These factors are driving the demand for animal-sourced proteins. The rising demand is favouring livestock intensification, a process that frequently relies on antibiotics for growth promotion, treatment and prevention of diseases. Antibiotic use in livestock production requires strict adherence to the recommended withdrawal periods. In Kenya, the risk of residues in meat is particularly high due to lack of legislation requiring testing for antibiotic residues in meat destined for the local market. We examined pig carcasses for gross pathological lesions and collected pork samples for antibiotic residue testing. Our aim was to determine if a risk-based approach to residue surveillance may be adopted by looking for an association between lesions and presence of residues. In total, 387 pork samples were tested for antibiotic residues using the Premi^®Test micro-inhibition kit. The prevalence of antibiotic residues was 41.26% (95% CI, 34.53–48.45%). A logistic regression model found no significant associations between gross pathological lesions and the presence of antibiotic residues. We recommend that the regulating authorities strongly consider routine testing of carcasses for antibiotic residues to protect meat consumers. Future studies should research on farming practices contributing to the high prevalence of residues.

Non-conformance with antibiotic withdrawal period guidelines represents a food safety concern, with potential for antibiotic toxicities and allergic reactions as well as selecting for antibiotic resistance. In the Kenyan domestic pig market, conformance with antibiotic withdrawal periods is not a requirement of government legislation and evidence suggests that antibiotic residues may frequently be above recommended limits. In this study, we sought to explore enablers of and barriers to conformance with antibiotic withdrawal periods for pig farms supplying a local independent abattoir in peri-urban Nairobi. We drew upon semi-structured interviews with farmers and government animal health professionals as well as focus groups which involved private animal health professionals. We also explored farmers’ engagement with antibiotic withdrawal periods by visiting thirteen pig farms (supplying one of two local independent abattoirs) weekly for one month in order to capture instances of antibiotic use. We analysed data using reflexive thematic analysis. All farmers participating in the study demonstrated an awareness of the concept of antibiotic withdrawal periods and described intentions to conform, motivated by caring for others, wanting to prevent harm or a perception that regulation around antibiotic withdrawal periods existed for local independent abattoirs. The antibiotic use practices that we identified showed limited opportunities for non-conformance with antibiotic withdrawal periods. Farmers and veterinarians reported that instances of antibiotic use were uncommon, especially in slaughter-weight pigs, and were mainly restricted to the treatment of clinical signs under the supervision of an animal health professional. Local factors presented barriers to antibiotic withdrawal period conformance including farmers’ economic constraints, lack of formal medicine recording, an absence of consistent abattoir monitoring and resource emergency, such as water scarcity on farms. This study demonstrates the importance of these contextual factors to conformance with antibiotic withdrawal periods. We highlight the need to account for farm-level influences when planning future research and interventions aimed at reducing the presence of antibiotic residues in meat from smallholding pig farms in peri-urban Nairobi.

Toxoplasma gondii is a ubiquitous protozoan parasite of public health concern, with severe health consequences among immunocompromised individuals and pregnant mothers. Pigs are intermediate hosts of this zoonotic parasite and consumption of undercooked pork is a risk factor for T. gondii infection. We investigated the seroprevalence and risk factors for T. gondii in pigs in Kenya. A cross-sectional study was conducted at a non-integrated abattoir in Kiambu, Kenya, where 446 blood samples were collected from slaughtered pigs between 5 January and 5 March 2021. For each pig sampled, additional data were collected on the county of origin, farm size, sex and live weight. Serum was harvested from each pig blood sample, and these were subjected to indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay tests to detect the presence of immunoglobin G (IgG) for T. gondii infection. The overall seroprevalence for T. gondii was 34.53% (95% C.I. 30.16–39.17). Risk factors for T. gondii seropositivity in pigs included farm size (p < 0.001) and the live weight of pigs (p = 0.044). The high seroprevalence of T. gondii indicates that consumers of raw and undercooked pork may be at a high risk of infection. It is therefore recommended that strategies for the mitigation of risk of exposure in populations should prioritize public health education for pig farmers, pork handlers and consumers on risk reduction measures along the pork value chains.

Rabies is a fatal zoonotic disease that can be effectively controlled by vaccinating 70% of at-risk dog populations. Rabies is a persistent health threat in Kenya due to low rabies vaccination coverage and low awareness among dog owners. In 2014, the Zoonotic Disease Unit launched the national rabies elimination strategy and listed Machakos County as one of the pilot counties due to the high rabies burden. Between 2021 and 2024, the International Livestock Research Institute, Veterinarians Sans Frontiers - Germany and Machakos County government implemented a series of free mass dog rabies vaccination campaigns. To support vaccine uptake, the research team co-created contextual rabies sensitization materials and vaccination announcement posters with the community. This was achieved through a series of key informant interviews, focus group discussions and co-creation workshops with community members who presented their dogs for vaccination and agreed to be part of these activities. Community members shared that dogs play both tangible and intangible roles in their lives. The main tangible roles included guarding homes, livestock, and crops. Friendship was highlighted as the most important intangible role. They stressed that a bond of friendship must first be established for dogs to serve their owners meaningfully. They shared that the co-creation process deepened their understanding of rabies and helped them better appreciate the value of their dogs. As a result, they recognized the importance of vaccinating their dogs — their friends — against the disease. Co-creating public health solutions with communities is an invaluable approach to raising awareness, building trust, and boosting participation in campaigns, all of which are vital for long-term sustainability. We advocate for greater use of co-creation processes, especially as we apply the One Health approach to address zoonotic threats and other health challenges.

Background: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a growing global health threat to humans, domestic animals and wildlife. In response, the WHO endorsed the AMR Global Action Plan in 2015 to guide the development of national action plans (NAPs). NAPs articulate priorities, sectoral roles and implementation strategies to address AMR. Although the wildlife sector has been noted to be minimally included in these documents, the extent and nature of its inclusion remain unclear. This is concerning given wildlife’s role at the human–animal–environment interface in AMR dynamics. Objectives: To assess the extent and context of wildlife inclusion in AMR NAPs. Methods: We reviewed 177 AMR NAPs available in the WHO library. Each document was searched for the terms ‘wildlife’ or ‘wild’, and the extracted excerpts were analysed using an inductive thematic analysis to determine the context in which wildlife was referenced. Results: Wildlife was minimally included in the analysed NAPs, with only 11% (20/177) containing wildlife-related references. Fifty-eight mentions were identified across documents, appearing within One Health definitions, proposed actions, document headings and governance structures. Surveillance was the most proposed wildlife-related activity; however, detailed implementation strategies were absent. Uganda was the only country whose NAP explicitly incorporated a wildlife-associated institution within its governance framework. Conclusions: Wildlife is minimally included in AMR NAPs, with references predominantly conceptual rather than operational. The absence of defined implementation mechanisms undermines effective One Health integration and risks weakening comprehensive AMR responses.

Introduction: Soil‐transmitted helminths (STHs) remain a major global public health challenge, with dogs recognised as important reservoirs for several zoonotic species. In Kenya, data on the prevalence and genetic diversity of canine gastrointestinal helminths are scarce. This study investigated the prevalence of zoonotic helminths in dogs and characterised the genetic diversity of canine hookworms in Machakos County, Kenya. Methods: A cross‐sectional household‐based survey was conducted across three sublocations representing low, medium and high human population density. Faecal samples were collected from 104 dog‐owning households and examined using Mini‐FLOTAC and zinc chloride sieving–flotation techniques. Hookworm species were identified using nested polymerase chain reaction targeting the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene, followed by DNA sequencing. Phylogenetic diversity of Ancylostoma caninum was assessed using median‐joining haplotype network analyses. Results: Mini‐FLOTAC detected a higher prevalence of hookworm (89.4% vs. 81.6%), Toxocara spp. (45.2% vs. 19.7%) and taeniids (29.8% vs. 5.3%) compared to zinc chloride sieving–flotation. The latter identified additional parasites, including Trichuris spp. (9.2%), Spirocerca lupi (3.9%), Alaria spp. (1.3%) and Clonorchis sinensis (2.6%). A. caninum was the sole hookworm species identified, alongside genetically distinct A. caninum ‐like lineages. High genetic variability was observed, comprising 80 polymorphic sites and 40 haplotypes, of which 31 were singletons, seven occurred in two sequences each and two were represented by five and six sequences. Haplotype network and phylogenetic analyses revealed high genetic diversity and weak population structuring in A. caninum , with Kenyan isolates clustering with global lineages while exhibiting local diversification. We also report the first molecular confirmation of Angiostrongylus vasorum in domestic dogs in Kenya. Conclusions: These findings underscore dogs as key reservoirs of zoonotic helminths and highlight the need for strengthened surveillance and integrated One Health strategies incorporating molecular diagnostics and targeted education within dog health programmes in line with the WHO NTD Roadmap.