Nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus among hospital personnel is a common cause of hospital acquired infections. Emergence of drug resistant strains especially methicillin resistant S. aureus (MRSA) is a serious problem in hospital environment. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the nasal carriage rate of S. aureus and MRSA among Health Care Workers (HCWs) at Al Shifa Hospital, the major hospital in Gaza Strip. A cross sectional study was conducted on 200 HCWs. Nasal swabs were collected during February — April 2015, and cultured on blood and mannitol salt agar. The isolates were identified as S. aureus based on morphology, coagulase test, DNase test and mannitol salt agar fermentation. Disk diffusion antibiotic susceptibility tests were performed according to the guidelines of the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. MRSA were confirmed by detection of the mecA gene by PCR. Out of the 200 healthcare workers, 62 (31%) carried S. aureus, of which 51 (82.3%) were MRSA. Therefore, 25.5% of all HCWs were identified as MRSA carriers. MRSA carriage rate was highest among nurses (30.4%) whereas the carriage rate among doctors was (16%). The majority of MRSA carriers were workers of internal medicine department and surgical wards (41.3 and 35% respectively). Out of the 51 MRSA isolates identified by oxacillin disc resistance, 40 were confirmed by PCR targeting the mecA gene. Penicillin showed the highest rate of resistance among MRSA and MSSA isolates (100%). The high rate of nasal MRSA carriage among healthcare workers found in this study is alarming and highlights the need for adjusted infection control measures to prevent MRSA transmission from HCWs to the vulnerable patient.

Background: Extended-spectrum β lactamases (ESBLs), have the ability to hydrolyze and cause resistance to various types of the β-lactam antibiotics, including the extended-spectrum (or third-generation) cephalosporins (e.g., cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, ceftazidime) and monobactams (e.g., aztreonam). ESBL-producing Gram negative bacteria is still posing significant therapeutic challenges. Objectives: To assess the prevalence and molecular characteristics of ESBL producing Gram negative bacilli, isolated from a cohort of pediatric patients in Gaza hospitals. Methods: A total of 322 isolates of Gram-negative bacilli were collected from four referral pediatric hospitals in Gaza, namely: Al-Nasr, Al-Rantisi, Al-Durra and Beit Hanoun hospitals. These isolates were tested for ESBL production using the double disk synergy and CHROMagar phenotypic methods. Molecular characterization of the ESBL producing strains was performed using PCR targeting the CTX-M, TEM and SHV genes. Antibiotic profile was done using Kirby Bauer method according to Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute. Results: Out of 322 isolates tested by phenotypic methods, 166 (51.6%) were ESBL positive. The prevalence of ESBL production in Al-Nasr, Al-Rantisi, Al-Durra and Beit Hanoun hospitals was 54%, 52.5%, 45.5% and 52.8% respectively. The prevalence of ESBL production among Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter spp., Proteus mirabilis, Enterobacter spp., Citrobacter spp., and Serratia marcescens is 55.3%, 63.4%, 17.8%, 57.1%, 33.3%, 28.5%, 38.4%, and 4% respectively. ESBL production among urine, pus, blood, CSF and sputum was 53.3%, 55.2%, 47.4%, 33.3%, and 25% respectively. Out of the 322 isolates, 144 were screened for CTX-M, TEM and SHV production. Using PCR, 85 (59%) had at least one gene. The prevalence rate of CTX-M, TEM and SHV genes was 60%, 57.6%, and 38.3% respectively. Meropenem and amikacin were highest rates of susceptibility antibiotics against ESBLs producers (83.1% and 82.5% respectively), while the least effective antibiotics were amoxicillin (3.1%) and cephalexin (13.9%). Moreover, ESBLs producers showed high resistance rate to cefotaxime, ceftriaxone and ceftazidime (79.5%, 78.9% and 79.5% respectively). Conclusion: Our results show high prevalence of ESBL production among Gram negative bacilli isolated from children in different pediatric hospitals in Gaza strip. A substantial level of resistance to first and second generation cephalosporins was also observed. This ascertains the need for a rational antibiotic prescription and consumption policy.

The worldwide prevalence of multi-drug resistance (MDR) in Gram-negative bacteria (GNB), particularly related to extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs) and carbapenemases, poses significant global public health and clinical challenges. To characterize ESBL-producing Gram-negative bacilli, within a pediatric hospital in Gaza using whole genome sequencing (WGS). A total of 158 clinical isolates of Gram-negative bacilli were collected from Al-Nasser Pediatric Hospital. These isolates were tested for ESBL production using the double disk synergy test. The antibiotic susceptibility profile was determined using the Kirby Bauer method following the Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute guidelines. Selected 15 phenotypically MDR isolates were whole-genome sequenced and characterized for their genome-based species identity and antibiotic resistance gene profile. Of the 158 isolates, 93 (58.9%) were positive for ESBL production. The frequency of Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii, Proteus mirabilis, and Serratia marcescens was 50%, 22.7%, 22.7%, 1.8%, 1.2%, and 1.2% respectively. The prevalence of ESBL among urine, pus, blood, and sputum was 64%, 44%, 23%, and 63.6%, respectively. Chloramphenicol, Imipenem, and Meropenem were the most effective antibiotics against ESBL producers. In sequenced isolates, an average of six anti-microbial resistance (AMR) genes were noted per isolate, where one of them carried up to 13 antibiotic resistance genes. Carbapenem resistance genes such as blaKPC-2(6.6%), blaPDC-36/12 (6.6%), and blaPOM-1 (6.6%) were detected. All the sequenced E. coli isolates (n = 8) showed multiple resistance genes, mainly against β-lactamase (25.0%), aminoglycosides (37.5%), sulfonamides (37.5%), and genes conferring resistance to tetracyclines (25.0). Our results showed a high prevalence of ESBL-producing GNB isolated from a pediatric hospital in the Gaza Strip. Various antibiotic resistance genes were identified, including those encoding ESBL and carbapenems. The results highlight the significant challenge posed by MDR in GNB and emphasize the need for effective antibiotic strategies. Given the high endemicity observed in various studies from Palestine, it is important to conduct clinical and molecular epidemiology research to identify risk factors, transmission patterns, and clinical outcomes associated with GNB strains that carry ESBL and carbapenem resistance genes.

Background: The fecal carriage of extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Enterobacterales (ESBL-PE) is a major driver of the global spread of these antibiotic resistance determinants. Here we determined the rate of fecal ESBL-PE carriage in pediatric hospitals and community-serving healthcare centers serving adults and children in the Gaza Strip, Palestine. Methods: A total of 373 fecal and rectal samples were collected from different hospitals and clinics in Gaza. The antibiotic susceptibility was determined using the disk diffusion method and interpreted according to CLSI guidelines. The bacterial isolates were tested for ESBL production using phenotypic methods (double disk synergy test and growth on selective chromogenic media). Bla_CTX−M, bla_SHV, and bla_TEM genes were sought by PCR. Results: Out of the 373 isolates tested, 138 (37%) were considered ESBL positive as revealed by phenotypic tests. The prevalence of ESBLs among hospitalized patients was 39.1% (hospital setting) whereas, among outpatients attending community healthcare centers, it was 35.1% (community setting). ESBL production among Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Citrobacter freundii, Proteus mirabilis, and Klebsiella aerogenes isolates was 52.8%, 39.1%, 26.7%, 2.8%, and 2.1% respectively. Meropenem and amikacin were the most effective antibiotics against ESBL producers (68.9% and 73.6% susceptibility, respectively), while only 15.2%, 22.5%, and 24.6% remained susceptible to ceftazidime, cefotaxime, and ceftriaxone, respectively. Out of 138 phenotypically ESBL-positive isolates, 98 randomly chosen were screened for bla_CTX−M, bla_TEM, and bla_SHV genes. The prevalence rate of bla_CTX−M was 45.9%, while bla_TEM and bla_SHV genes were detected in 16.8% and 5.2% of CTX-M-negative isolates (corresponding mostly for K. pneumoniae isolates in the case of SHV-PCR), respectively. Conclusions: The study revealed an alarmingly high prevalence of fecal carriage of ESBL-producing Enterobacterales among hospitalized children but also in the community of the Gaza Strip. In addition, 30% of ESBL-producers were already resistant to carbapenems, the treatment of choice of infections with ESBL-producers.

Escherichia coli is the foremost agent responsible for infections in humans, encompassing those affecting the urinary tract, ears, wounds, and various other regions. The escalating global issue of antimicrobial resistance in E. coli is raising significant apprehension. The aim of this study was to assess the frequency and susceptibility to antibiotics of E. coli based on gender, age, and the type of specimen. A retrospective review was conducted on culture outcomes from a total of 7,656 E. coli specimens primarily from urine, pus, sputum, vaginal swabs, and other specimens including cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), catheter tips, ear discharges and eye swabs, and ascitic fluid. Patients included 5,285 females (69%) and 2,371 males (31%), with age groups ranging from neonates (1 day to 29 days) to adults (> 12 years). The antimicrobial susceptibility was tested using the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method. E. coli strains displayed the highest levels of resistance to ampicillin and co-amoxiclav, with resistance rates reaching 90.3% and 78.7%, respectively. Conversely, these strains showed the lowest resistance to colistin (6.3%), followed by meropenem (9.9%) and amikacin (10.6%). Resistance patterns appeared to vary between males and females across most antibiotics, with similar trends observed across different age groups. Colistin resistance was notably higher among younger patients. Among the various specimen types analyzed, sputum samples generally exhibited the highest resistance rates for many antibiotics when compared to other specimen types. The resistance pattern of E. coli varies depending on gender, age, and specimen sources, and this should be taken into account when treating E. coli infections.

Background: Extended-spectrum β lactamases (ESBLs) have the ability to hydrolyze and cause resistance to types of the β-lactam antibiotics, including the extended-spectrum (or third generation) cephalosporins (e.g., cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, ceftazidime) and monobactams (e.g., aztreonam).Objectives: To assess the prevalence and molecular characteristics of ESBL producing Gram negative bacilli, isolated from a cohort of pediatric patients in Gaza hospitals.Methods: A total of 322 isolates of Gram-negative bacilli were collected from four referral pediatric hospitals in Gaza, namely: Al-Nasr, Al-Rantisi, Al-Durra and Beit Hanoun hospitals. These isolates were tested for ESBL production using the double disk synergy and CHROMagar phenotypic methods. Molecular characterization of the ESBL producing strains was performed using PCR targeting the CTX-M, TEM and SHV genes. The antibiotic profile was determined using the Kirby Bauer method according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute standards.Results: Out of 322 isolates tested by phenotypic methods, 166 (51.6%) were ESBL positive. The prevalence of ESBL production in Al-Nasr, Al-Rantisi, Al-Durra and Beit Hanoun hospitals was 54.0%, 52.5%, 45.5% and 52.8%, respectively. The prevalence of ESBL production among Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter spp., Proteus mirabilis, Enterobacter spp., Citrobacter spp., and Serratia marcescens was 55.3%, 63.4%, 17.8%, 57.1%, 33.3%, 28.5%, 38.4%, and 4.0%, respectively. ESBL production for urine, pus, blood, CSF and sputum was 53.3%, 55.2%, 47.4%, 33.3%, and 25%, respectively. Out of the 322 isolates, 144 were screened for CTX-M, TEM and SHV production. Using PCR, 85 (59%) was shown to be positive for at least one gene. The overall prevalence of CTX-M, TEM and SHV genes was 60.0%, 57.6%, and 38.3%, respectively.Meropenem and amikacin were the most effective antibiotics against the ESBLs producers (83.1% and 82.5% of susceptible isolates, respectively), while the least effective antibiotics were amoxicillin (3.1%) and cephalexin (13.9%). Moreover, ESBLs producers showed a high resistance rate to cefotaxime, ceftriaxone and ceftazidime (79.5%, 78.9% and 79.5%, respectively). Conclusion: Our results show high prevalence of ESBL production among Gram negative bacilli isolated from children in different pediatric hospitals in Gaza strip. A substantial level of resistance to first and second generation cephalosporins was also observed. This emphasizes the need for a rational antibiotic prescription and consumption policy.