Heavy metal pollution is a growing environmental and public health concern, particularly due to its impact on microbial communities. Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a highly adaptable bacterium, has developed resistance to heavy metals (HMs), which is closely linked to antibiotic resistance through shared genetic and regulatory pathways. This co-resistance poses significant challenges for environmental health and antimicrobial management. Additionally, microplastics act as carriers for HMs and antibiotics, creating a compounded pollution stressor that further influences bacterial resistance patterns. This review explores the molecular mechanisms by which P. aeruginosa resists heavy metal toxicity, focusing on key adaptive strategies such as efflux systems, biofilm formation, enzymatic detoxification, and genetic modifications. These mechanisms enhance bacterial survival in contaminated environments, allowing P. aeruginosa to persist and contribute to the spread of resistance genes. The interplay between HMs, antibiotics, and microplastics underscores the complexity of pollution-driven bacterial adaptation. Addressing these issues requires a multidisciplinary approach that integrates environmental pollution control and antimicrobial resistance management. Understanding how P. aeruginosa thrives under such stress conditions is crucial for developing effective strategies to mitigate the risks associated with heavy metal contamination, antibiotic resistance, and microplastic pollution in both natural and clinical ecosystems.

Phages, the most abundant biological entities on Earth, play a crucial role in various microbial ecosystems, significantly impacting biogeochemical cycles and bacterial evolution. They inhabit diverse environments, including soil, water, and extreme conditions, where they contribute to the contribute to regulating microbial populations, facilitate genetic exchange, and aid in nutrient cycling. Recent research has highlighted their potential in addressing antibiotic resistance, enhancing wastewater treatment, promoting agricultural sustainability, and tackling environmental issues. However, their ability to disseminate antibiotic resistance genes through horizontal gene transfer raises important concerns, warranting a thorough assessment of their ecological and biotechnological applications. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the diversity, ecological roles, and practical uses of environmental phages, emphasizing both their benefits and limitations. By analyzing recent findings and real-world applications, it provides insights into the challenges encountered and future directions for leveraging phages in environmental management, biotechnology, and healthcare.