The inherent stability and solvent processability restrict the functional expression of graphene for biomedical applications. To resolve this problem graphene oxide (GrO) has emerged as a biomaterial for biomedical applications of graphene. The participation of O_K edges has been confirmed with synchrotron radiation near edge X-ray absorption fine structure (SR-NEXAFS). The as-prepared graphene oxide has been confirmed with ¹³C cross polymerization magic angle spinning (CP-MAS) solid state NMR, HRXPS, HRTEM, SAED, SEM, AFM, Raman, XRD, FTIR, UV, TGA, DTA, BET and Porosimeter, etc. The biomedical significance of graphene oxide has been supported by an extensive structural investigation. The underlying mechanism of biological activity of graphene oxide has been inferred through the synergistic impact of contributory factors (SICF). The cytotoxicity of graphene oxide has been evaluated with an SRB assay with living mammalian cell lines, human breast cancer cell line MCF-7 and monkey normal kidney cell line Vero. The estimated cell viabilities are greater than 80% over a 10–80 μg mL⁻¹ concentration. The high cytocompatibility of graphene oxide has confirmed its low toxicity and hence its excellent biocompatibility. Moreover, the morphological effect on the Vero cell line has been endorsed by in vitro behaviour. The sensitivity of graphene oxide has been evaluated with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) against antifungal strain C. albicans (ATCC 10231) at 128 μg mL⁻¹. However, for antibacterial strains S. aureus (ATCC 25923) and E. coli (ATCC 25922) the MIC of graphene oxide is 256 μg mL⁻¹. The genetic variability greatly increases during the sub-culturing of strains; therefore the resistant behaviour of graphene oxide has been observed against NCIM strains. Additionally, the antioxidant activity of graphene oxide is 50.57–45.89%, at over 40–100 μg mL⁻¹ concentration. Hence, the structural investigations of graphene oxide have complemented the findings for biological activity and emerged as an advanced functional biomaterial for biomedical applications of graphene.

Heterocyclic compounds are significant lead drug candidates based on their various structure–activity relationships (SAR), and their use in pharmaceutics is constantly developing. Benzimidazole (BnZ) is synthesized by a condensation reaction between benzene and imidazole. The BnZ structure consists of two nitrogen atoms embedded in a five-membered imide ring which is fused with a benzene ring. This review examines the conventional and green synthesis of metallic and non-metallic BnZ and their derivatives, which have several potential SARs, along with a wide range of pharmacological properties, including anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, anti-tubercular, and anti-protozoal properties. These compounds have been proven by pharmacological investigations to be efficient against different strains of microbes. Therefore, in this review, the structural variations of BnZ are listed along with various applications, predominantly related to their biological activities.

Ultrasonochemically driven graphene oxide (GrO) functionalization (f) with sulfanilamide (SA) near-edge catalyzed heterogeneous graphene oxide (h-GrO) as economic scalable f-(SA)GrO is reported. The novel in situ H₂O association was subsequently aligned towards C–O–C active sites of GrO and f-(SA)GrO surfaces on a mechanistic HO˙ release with efficient sonothermocatalysis. Compared to GrO, the electronic bandwidth of heterogeneous f-(SA)GrO structure is reduced from 4.00 to 3.67 eV at 280 nm excitation. The contribution of heteroatoms (-N) of f-(SA)GrO at near-edges could have a greater bandwidth efficacy due to synergistic effect. The composition-driven structural alignments with near-edges have been investigated with synchrotron radiation soft X-ray absorption spectroscopy and high-resolution X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Efficient photoluminescent bandwidth structures at 3.67 and 1.87 eV for f-(SA)GrO and 4.00, 2.04 and 1.46 eV for GrO with their corresponding surface quantized electronic density contour images, photon flux, and power density were investigated. Sonothermocatalysis efficiencies for methylene blue (MB) by GrO and f-(SA)GrO sonocatalysts at regular time intervals up to 60 min are 68.68 to 83.05% and 81.44 to 87.31% respectively. Distorted sonothermocatalysis efficiencies for rhodamine B (RhB) are 43.71 to 61.38% and 47.7 to 53.39% respectively. The sonocatalyst f-(SA)GrO is thermodynamically more efficient (>85%) in MB sonothermocatalysis than GrO. Ultrasound time driven temperatures exhibited a thermal progression of sonothermocatalysis for MB and RhB degradation. It generated activation energy (E_a), frequency factor (A), enthalpy (ΔH), entropy (ΔS), and Gibbs energy (ΔG), which depict an oxidative radical degradation. Interdependence of ΔH, ΔS, and ΔG implies a contribution of SA vis-a-vis activation energy (0.489 and 0.342 J mol⁻¹ for MB and 0.234 and 0.075 J mol⁻¹ for RhB degradation) on an Arrhenius scale. The functional groups of sonocatalysts were restored after sonothermocatalysis of MB, detected from Fourier-transform infrared spectra and diffraction patterns, confirming their reusability.

The purification of light hydrocarbons is one of the most important chemical processes globally which consumes substantial energy. Porous materials are likely to improve the efficiency of the separation process by acting as regenerable solid adsorbents. To investigate such translational systems, the underlying mechanism of adsorption in the porous materials must be taken into account. Herein we report the adsorption and selective separation of C1–C4 hydrocarbons in the coinage metal-based macrocyclic metallocavitand Pillarplex, which exhibits excellent performance in the adsorption of CH₄ at the ambient conditions with a binding energy of −17.9 kcal mol⁻¹. In addition, the endohedral adsorption of C2–C4 hydrocarbon is impressive. The CH₄, C₂H₄, C₃H₄, and 1,3-butadiene have potential uptake of 2.57, 4.26, 3.60, and 2.95 mmol g⁻¹, respectively at ambient conditions are highest from their respective isomers. Selective separation of C1–C4 hydrocarbons is studied using ideal adsorption solution theory demonstrating its potential for one-step purification of C1–C3 hydrocarbons.