Cannabinoids are still the most consumed drugs of abuse worldwide. Despite being considered less harmful to human health, particularly if compared with opiates or cocaine, cannabis consumption has important medico-legal and public health consequences. For this reason, the development and optimization of sensitive analytical methods that allow the determination of these compounds in different biological specimens is important, involving relevant efforts from laboratories. This paper will discuss cannabis consumption; toxicokinetics, the most detected compounds in biological samples; and characteristics of the latter. In addition, a comprehensive review of extraction methods and analytical tools available for cannabinoid detection in selected biological specimens will be reviewed. Important issues such as pitfalls and cut-off values will be considered.

The emergence of new psychoactive substances has earned a great deal of attention, and several reports of acute poisoning and deaths have been issued involving, for instance, synthetic opiates. In recent years, there have been profound alterations in the legislation concerning consumption, marketing, and synthesis of these compounds; rapid alert systems have also been subject to changes, and new substances and new markets, mainly through the internet, have appeared. Their effects and how they originate in consumers are still mostly unknown, primarily in what concerns chronic toxicity. This review intends to provide a detailed description of these substances from the point of view of consumption, toxicokinetics, and health consequences, including case reports on intoxications in order to help researchers and public health agents working daily in this area.

The emergence of potentially dangerous new psychoactive substances (NPS) is challenging for forensic laboratories, as well as the ability to develop and validate methods for a rapid and unambiguous monitoring of these compounds. Thereupon, the aim of this work was to establish a methodology for the identification and quantification of four synthetic cathinones already seized in Portugal [4-chloroethcathinone (4-CEC), α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (α-PVP), 4-chloro-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (4-Cl-PVP) and methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV)] in whole blood samples, using gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC–MS). The analytes were extracted from blood by solid-phase extraction (SPE) and derivatized with N-methyl-N-(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide (MSTFA) with 5% trimethylchlorosilane (TMCS). For all analytes, linearity was observed from 25 (lower limit of quantification, LLOQ) to 800 ng/mL, with coefficients of determination higher than 0.99. The limits of detection (LOD) were 5 ng/mL for α-PVP, 4-Cl-PVP and MDPV and 25 ng/mL for 4-CEC. The method was selective, precise and accurate and the extraction efficiency was higher than 85% for all analytes. The target cathinones were stable under different stock conditions, being MDPV the most stable and 4-CEC the least stable compound. The validated analytical method was then applied to real samples that previously tested positive for amphetamines, but no positive samples were found for the cathinones under study. The present method describes for the first time the quantification of 4-CEC and 4-Cl-PVP in whole blood samples by GC–MS, allowing their accurate determination in forensic situations where the compounds are involved.

Forensic toxicology plays a pivotal role in elucidating the presence of drugs of abuse in both biological and solid samples, thereby aiding criminal investigations and public health initiatives. This review article explores the significance of sensor technologies in this field, focusing on diverse applications and their impact on the determination of drug abuse markers. This manuscript intends to review the transformative role of portable sensor technologies in detecting drugs of abuse in various samples. They offer precise, efficient, and real-time detection capabilities in both biological samples and solid substances. These sensors have become indispensable tools, with particular applications in various scenarios, including traffic stops, crime scenes, and workplace drug testing. The integration of portable sensor technologies in forensic toxicology is a remarkable advancement in the field. It has not only improved the speed and accuracy of drug abuse detection but has also extended the reach of forensic toxicology, making it more accessible and versatile. These advancements continue to shape forensic toxicology, ensuring swift, precise, and reliable results in criminal investigations and public health endeavours.

Cannabis remains the most used illicit drug worldwide, with rising use linked to medical and recreational decriminalization. This has driven the development of analytical techniques to detect cannabinoids in biological matrices. Hair offers key advantages due to its non-invasive collection, extended detection window, stability, and easy storage. This study presents the development and validation of a robust method for extracting natural cannabinoids from hair, following ANSI/ASB 2019, FDA, and Society of Hair Testing guidelines. Hair samples were washed with methanol and cut into small pieces. Approximately 20 mg of hair was incubated with 1 M NaOH and methanol (30 min, 50 °C). The mixture was acidified with acetic acid and underwent liquid-liquid extraction using hexane/ethyl acetate (90/10, v/v). The organic phase was evaporated and reconstituted in 1-pentanol/methanol (50/50, v/v). Analysis was conducted by LC-MS/MS using multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) and triple-stage mass spectrometry (MS³). The method was selective, specific, precise, and linear, with working ranges of 5-2000 pg/mg for THC, CBN, and CBD; 50-2000 pg/mg for THC-OH; and 0.2-20 pg/mg for THC-COOH. Ion suppression was observed but did not affect sensitivity, with LLOQs and LODs from 0.2 to 50 pg/mg. Over 25 hair samples from university students tested positive for cannabis. THC ranged from 5.9 to 2430.7 pg/mg; one sample had THC-OH above LLOQ (61.4 pg/mg); THC-COOH ranged from 0.3 and 36.4 pg/mg; CBN from 5.7 to 461.0 pg/mg; and CBD from 5.7 to 850.2 pg/mg. Results aligned with self-reported use, confirming the method's forensic suitability.