The outcome of communication training is widely measured by self-efficacy ratings, and different questionnaires have been used. Nevertheless, none of these questionnaires have been formally validated through systematic measurement of assessment properties. Consequently, we decided to further develop a self-efficacy questionnaire which has been used in previous studies. This study aims to examine the content, internal structure, and relations with other variables of the new version of the self-efficacy questionnaire (SE-12). The questionnaire was developed on the basis of the theoretical approach applied in the communication course, statements from former course participants, teachers, and experts in the field. The questionnaire was initially validated through face-to-face interviews with 9 staff members following a test-retest including 195 participants. After minor adjustments, the SE-12 questionnaire demonstrated evidence of content validity. An explorative factor analysis indicated unidimensionality with highly correlated items. A Cronbach’s α of 0.95 and a Loevinger’s H coefficient of 0.71 provided evidence of statistical reliability and scalability. The test-retest reliability had a value of 0.71 when evaluated using intra-class correlation. Expected relations with other variables were partially confirmed in two of three hypotheses, but a ceiling effect was present in 9 of 12 items. The SE-12 scale should be regarded a reliable and partially valid instrument. We consider the questionnaire useful for self-evaluation of clinical communication skills; the SE-12 is user-friendly and can be administered as an electronic questionnaire. However, future research should explore potential needs for adjustments to reduce the identified ceiling effect.

In recent years, coaching has received special attention as a method to improve healthy lifestyle behaviours. The fact that coaching has found its way into healthcare and may provide new ways of engaging the patients and making them accountable for their health, justifies the need for an overview of the evidence regarding coaching interventions used in patient care, the effect of the interventions, and the quality of the studies published. However, in order to provide a clear definition of the coaching interventions selected for this review, we have found it necessary to distinguish between health coaching and life coaching. In this review, we will only focus on the latter method and on that basis assess the health related outcomes of life coaching.

Background: Childhood diarrhoea, a major cause of morbidity and mortality in low-income regions, remains scarcely studied in many countries, such as Guinea-Bissau. Stool sample drying enables later qPCR analyses of pathogens without concern about electricity shortages. Methods: Dried stool samples of children under five years treated at the Bandim Health Centre in Bissau, Guinea-Bissau were screened by qPCR for nine enteric bacteria, five viruses, and four parasites. The findings of children having and not having diarrhoea were compared in age groups 0–11 and 12–59 months. Results: Of the 429 children– 228 with and 201 without diarrhoea– 96.9% and 93.5% had bacterial, 62.7% and 44.3% viral, and 52.6% and 48.3% parasitic pathogen findings, respectively. Enteroaggregarive Escherichia coli (EAEC; 60.5% versus 66.7%), enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC; 61.4% versus 62.7%), Campylobacter (53.2% versus 51.8%), and enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC; 54.4% versus 44.3%) were the most common bacterial pathogens. Diarrhoea was associated with enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC)/Shigella (63.3%), ETEC (54.4%), astrovirus (75.0%), norovirus GII (72.6%) and Cryptosporidium (71.2%). The only pathogen associated with severe diarrhoea was EIEC/Shigella (p<0.001). EAEC was found more frequent among the infants, and EIEC/Shigella, Giardia duodenalis and Dientamoeba fragilis among the older children. Conclusions: Stool pathogens proved common among all the children regardless of them having diarrhoea or not.

Studies from low-income countries report positive non-specific effects of early Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) immunisation on childhood health and survival. Neonatal immunisation with BCG may prime the immune system and offer partial protection against other infectious and possibly allergic diseases. The potential clinical value of these non-specific effects has not yet been examined in a large randomised trial in high-income countries. The Danish Calmette Study is a multicentre randomised clinical trial conducted between October 2012 and November 2015. Within the first 7 days of life, infants were randomly assigned to intra-dermal vaccination with BCG or no intervention. At 3 and 13 months of age structured telephone interviews and clinical examinations of the children were conducted. In a subgroup of children blood samples were drawn and stool samples collected at age 4 days, 3 and 13 months. Thymus index was assessed by ultrasound in a subgroup at randomisation and at 3 months. The primary study outcome is hospitalisation within the first 15 months of life as assessed in Danish health registers. Secondary outcomes include infectious disease hospitalisations, wheezing, eczema, use of prescribed medication, growth, development, thymus index, T- and B-cell subpopulations assessed by flow cytometry, in vitro cytokine responses and specific antibody responses to other vaccines. Adverse reactions were registered. With participation of 4184 families and more than 93% adherence to clinical follow-up at 3 and 13 months, this randomised clinical trial has the potential to create evidence regarding non-specific effects of BCG vaccination in a high-income setting.