Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are persistent environmental contaminants that tend to accumulate in solid matrices such as sewage sludge, raising concerns regarding their fate and potential ecological risks. This study aimed to develop and validate a robust analytical method for the accurate determination of PFAS in dehydrated sludge. A liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) method was optimized for 28 PFAS, including perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs) and sulfonic acids (PFSAs). Solid–liquid extraction with basic methanol was followed by cleanup using a cartridge packed with ferrite and sodium sulfate to remove moisture and particulate interferences. Chromatographic separation was performed with an Avantor^® ACE^® PFAS Delay column coupled to an Agilent triple quadrupole MS operating in negative electrospray ionization mode. The method achieved excellent sensitivity (MDL < 0.02 µg/g dry weight for most compounds), satisfactory precision (RSD < 15%), and recoveries between 80–118%. Optimization of mobile phase additives, gradient conditions, and MS parameters enhanced chromatographic resolution and signal-to-noise ratio. The validated method demonstrates high reliability for PFAS determination in complex solid matrices and can be applied as a valuable tool for environmental monitoring and risk assessment of sludge management practices.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are persistent contaminants of concern in aquatic environments because of their stability, mobility, and resistance to conventional degradation. This review examines PFAS remediation technologies in water and wastewater treatment, with emphasis on membrane filtration, advanced oxidation processes, and biological approaches. Although many studies have reported high removal efficiencies, the limitations of these techniques are numerous, including membrane fouling, high energy consumption, incomplete destruction, formation of short-chain transformation products, and the management of concentrated residual streams. As a result, PFAS remain bioavailable in receiving waters for biological uptake, leading to ecological consequences in aquatic systems. PFAS can enter organisms through water, diet, sediment contact, and maternal transfer, and their bioaccumulation is associated with growth inhibition, developmental toxicity, endocrine disruption, oxidative stress, immunotoxicity, neurobehavioral changes, and hepatic damage. These effects can persist even when treatment systems achieve reductions in water concentrations. Therefore, PFAS management should be assessed not only by removal efficiency but also by the capacity of treatment systems to reduce trophic exposure in food webs.