This paper studies the impact of formal education on entrepreneurship rates. We propose that different levels of education not only vary between each other in terms of their impact, but also according to whether we analysis either formal or informal entrepreneurship. Our results show that tertiary education increases formal entrepreneurship as a consequence of the higher self-confidence, lower perceived risk and enhanced human capital. At the same time, tertiary education also has a negative effect on informal entrepreneurship as it increases awareness of and sensitivity to the possible negative repercussions of this kind of activities. In addition, we show that the impact of secondary education on formal entrepreneurship is positive as well, although in this case the effect on informal entrepreneurship is not significant. Even though secondary education also increases awareness of the potential negative repercussions of informal entrepreneurship, this effect is counteracted by a lack of management skills.Spanish Ministryof Economy and Competitiveness (Ref. EDU2012-39080-C07-06) and Caja de Burgo

(1) Background: Home confinement and social distancing are two of the main public health measures to curb the spread of SARS-Cov-2, which can have harmful consequences on people’s mental health. This systematic review aims to identify the best available scientific evidence on the impact that home confinement and social distancing, derived from the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, have had on the mental health of the general population in terms of depression, stress and anxiety. (2) Methods: A systematic search was conducted on PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science and ScienceDirect between 2 January 2021 and 7 January 2021, in accordance with the recommendations of the PRISMA Declaration. The selection of studies and the evaluation of their methodological quality were performed in pairs, independently and blindly, based on predetermined eligibility criteria. (3) Results: The 26 investigations reviewed were developed in different regions and countries. Factors that are associated with poor mental health were female gender, young ages, having no income and suffering from a previous psychiatric illness. Inadequate management of the pandemic by authorities and a lack or excess of information also contributed to worse mental health. (4) Conclusions: There are groups of people more likely to suffer higher levels of anxiety, depression and stress during the restrictive measures derived from COVID-19.

Exercise overproduces oxygen reactive species (ROS) and eventually exceeds the body’s antioxidant capacity to neutralize them. The ROS produce damaging effects on the cell membrane and contribute to skeletal muscle damage. Selenium (Se), a natural mineral trace element, is an essential component of selenoproteins that plays an important role in antioxidant defense. The activity of the enzyme glutathione peroxidase (GPx), a highly-efficient antioxidant enzyme, is closely dependent on the presence of Se. These properties of Se may be potentially applicable to improve athletic performance and training recovery. We systematically searched for published studies to evaluate the effectiveness of Se supplementation on antioxidant defense system, muscle performance, hormone response, and athletic performance among physically active individuals. We used the Preferred Reporting Elements for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines and searched in SCOPUS, Web of Science (WOS), and PubMed databases to identify published studies until March 2020. The systematic review incorporated original studies with randomized controlled crossover or parallel design in which intake of Se administered once a day was compared with the same placebo conditions. No exclusions were applied for the type of physical exercise performed, the sex, nor the age of the participants. Among 150 articles identified in the search, 6 met the criteria and were included in the systematic review. The methodological quality of the studies was evaluated using the McMaster Critical Review Form. Oral Se supplementation with 180 µg/day or 240 µg/day (selenomethionine) and 200 µg/day (Sodium Selenite), significantly decreased lipid hydroperoxide levels and increased GPx in plasma, erythrocyte, and muscle. No significant effects were observed on athletic performance, testosterone hormone levels, creatine kinase activity, and exercise training-induced adaptations on oxidative enzyme activities or on muscle fiber type myosin heavy chain expression. In addition, Se supplementation showed to have a dampening effect on the mitochondria changes in chronic and acute exercise. In summary, the use of Se supplementation has no benefits on aerobic or anaerobic athletic performance but it may prevent Se deficiencies among athletes with high-intensity and high-volume training. Optimal Se plasma levels may be important to minimize chronic exercise-induced oxidative effects and modulate the exercise effect on mitochondrial changes.

Background: There is a pressing need to contribute evidence to the improvement in the early identification of signs and symptoms associated with strokes, and address the treatment-seeking delays. The objective of this study is to describe the knowledge regarding the warning signs and risk factors (RFs) among stroke patients, as well as of their attitudes toward a suspected event, and the analysis of its possible relationship with the socio-demographic and clinical characteristics of these patients. Method: A cross-sectional study was designed, in which all stroke patients admitted consecutively to the Burgos University Hospital (Spain) were included. The principal outcomes were the patient’s ability to identify two RFs and two warning signs and the patient’s hypothetical response to a possible stroke event. The possible factors associated with the knowledge of warning signs, RFs, and the correct response to a new event were studied using univariate and multivariate regression analysis. Results: A total of 529 patients were included. Having a higher education level or a history of prior stroke were associated with a greater degree of knowledge of warning signs (odds ratio (OR) 3.19, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.70–5.74, p = 0.003; OR 3.54, 95%CI 2.09–5.99, p ≤ 0.001, respectively), RFs (OR 3.15, 95%CI 1.75–5.67, p = 0.008; OR 4.08, 95%CI 2.41–6.91, p = 0.002, respectively), and the correct response to a possible stroke (OR 1.82, 95%CI 1.16–2.86; p = 0.030; OR 2.11, 95%CI 1.29–3.46, p = 0.022, respectively). Conclusion: Knowledge of warning signs or stroke RFs is low in the hospitalized patients. A previous stroke or secondary/higher education levels are the predictor factors that increase the probability of knowledge of warning signs, RFs, or reaction to possible event.

This systematic review and meta-analysis aim to provide scientific evidence regarding the effects of training on respiratory muscle training’s impact with the PowerBreath^®. A systematic analysis based on the PRISMA guides and a conducted research structured around the bases of Web of Science, Scopus, Medline/PubMed, SciELO y Cochrane Library Plus. Six articles published before January 2021 were included. The documentation and quantification of heterogeneity in every meta-analysis were directed through Cochran’s Q test and the statistic I²; additionally, a biased publication analysis was made using funnel plots, whose asymmetry was quantified Egger’s regression. The methodological quality was assessed through McMaster’s. PowerBreath^® administering a ≥ 15% resistive load of the maximum inspiratory pressure (PIM) achieves significant improvements (54%) in said pressure within 4 weeks of commencing the inspiratory muscle training. The maximal volume of oxygen (VO₂max) considerable enhancements was achieved from the 6 weeks associated with the maximum inspiratory pressure ≥ 21.5% post inspiratory muscle training onwards. Conversely, a significant blood lactate concentration decrement occurred from the 4th week of inspiratory muscle training, after a maximum inspiratory pressure ≥ 6.8% increment. PowerBreath^® is a useful device to stimulate sport performance and increase pulmonary function.

To determine the usefulness of a formal, structured, nonpharmacological treatment for apathetic dementia patients. A controlled, cross-over, randomized, simple-blind, multicentre clinical trial. A total of 146 institutionalized or day care dementia patients with a stage 1 or 2 Clinical Dementia Rating, with no significant motor or sensory problems, or with rapidly evolving dementia and in a clinically stable state were recruited. A cognitive mini examination, and functional, depression, and potential toxicity scales, Neuropsychiatric Inventory Questionnaire (NPI-Q), and Dementia Apathy Interview and Rating (DAIR) scales were applied at baseline. Patients were randomized to initial intervention (music and art therapy and psychomotor activity) or initial control (free activities in the day room) and changed over at 4 weeks. NPI-Q and DAIR scales were administered at the end of weeks 4 and 8. A significant difference between intervention and control periods, as measured using the DAIR scale, was observed, with a difference of 0.21 (95% confidence interval: 0.07-0.34, P<0.005). The difference was very important in the patients with moderated apathy. However, differences were not so important in the patients with severe apathy and there were no differences at all in the non-apathetic patients. No significant differences were found with the NPI-Q scale, although there was a clear improvement trend in the “apathy” question on this scale. This effect seems to extend beyond the therapeutic intervention period. A structured, nonpharmacological, short-term occupational therapy intervention is more useful than activities of the patients' own choice for improving apathy in patients with mild or moderate dementia.