Agrivoltaic systems, which consist of the combination of energy production by means of photovoltaic systems and agricultural production in the same area, have emerged as a promising solution to the constraints related to the reduction in cultivated areas due to solar panels used in agricultural production systems. They also enable optimization of land use and reduction in conflicts over land access, in order to meet the increasing demand for agricultural products and energy resulting from rapid population growth. However, the selected installation configurations, such as elevation, spacing, tilt, and choice of panel technology used, can have a negative impact on agricultural and/or energy production. Thus, this paper addresses the need for a review that provides a clear explanation of agrivoltaics, including the factors that impact agricultural and energy production in agrivoltaic systems, types of panel configurations and technologies to optimize these systems, and a synthesis of modelling studies which have already been conducted in this area. Several studies have been carried out in this field to find the appropriate mounting height and spacing of the solar panels that optimize crop yields, as this later can be reduced by the shade created with the solar panels on the plants. It was reported that yields have been reduced by 62% to 3% for more than 80% of the tested crops. To this end, an optimization model can be developed to determine the optimal elevation, spacing, and tilt angle of the solar panels. This model would take into account factors that influence crop growth and yield, as well as factors that affect the performance of the photovoltaic system, with the goal of maximizing both crop yield and energy production.

Agriculture uses most of the world’s fresh water. Given that the worldwide population is expanding at an alarming rate, more land cultivation is apparently in demand. As a result, much more water would be required to irrigate cultivable lands. However, fresh water is becoming scarce at a faster rate due to climate uncertainties and over-exploitation. Several controlled irrigation techniques, such as drip and sprinkler irrigation, have been introduced to safeguard water resources. However, these techniques do not readily meet crop water demands and often end up causing overapplication of water. Under these circumstances, smart precision irrigation is the best solution. Smart irrigation techniques facilitate delivery of water in an amount that is required by the crop as per site/location and temporal requirements. Several studies have been carried out in this area, and remarkable progress has been observed. These studies range from making use of in situ sophisticated sensors that are low-cost and consume minimum energy up to the use of small unmanned aerial systems (SUAS) and satellite imagery for irrigation management. This review summarizes research studies that highlight the components of developing and deploying various precision irrigation technologies, their benefits, and their limitations. Specifically, the scientific value of this study lies in outlining implications of using different sensors, parameters, and equipment, the agroclimatic models, communication technologies, artificial intelligence, and the energy sources to implement automated irrigation systems. A future scope of precision irrigation is also discussed in accordance with cost-effectiveness and sustainability. This study should also act as a referring guideline for new researchers as well as technology manufacturers who seek to design and develop a futuristic yet efficient irrigation system. Overall, this review is aimed at contributing to the understanding of automated irrigation systems for their effective deployment towards enhanced agricultural production, conserved water resources, and sustainable use of energy sources.

Agrivoltaics is a sustainable way to produce both energy and food in developing countries facing rising demand for energy and food and limited access to and availability of land resources. However, in agrivoltaics systems, energy production, crop yield, and the amount of equipment used vary considerably depending on the configuration, which can significantly affect the economic profitability of the system. In addition, there are few studies, especially in West Africa, that assess the economic profitability of switching from agricultural systems or PV power plants to agrivoltaics systems. This study addresses these issues. It assesses the profitability of agrivoltaics system configurations and compares them with traditional agricultural systems and PV power plants, using discount rates ranging from 6% to 12% and considering six indicators: the Net Present Value (NPV), Life Cycle Cost, Levelized Cost of Energy, Profitability Index, Internal Rate of Return, and Payback Period. The results show that high-density agrivoltaics systems with limited spacing between panel tables and rows of tables are more profitable than low-density systems. For the most profitable case, the NPV was EUR 9401.24 at a 12% discount rate, whereas this value is negative when the discount rate reaches 7% for case 1, which is the lowest-density agrivoltaic system. Case 3, which is the highest-density agrivoltaic system and the PV power plant, achieved an NPV of EUR 60,411.88 and EUR 164,732.64, respectively, at a 12% discount rate.

Agrivoltaics is a promising technique, especially in view of the rapid population growth associated with the expansion of cultivated areas to satisfy the food demands of the population, and the increase in solar power plants, which require considerable space to supply the population with energy. Thus, the transition from agricultural to agrivoltaics systems and the transition from PV power plants to agrivoltaics systems can enable more efficient use of land for energy and agricultural production. However, the configuration of agrivoltaics systems, namely panel elevation, spacing between panels and between rows of panels, and panel size, defines the amount of material used. As a result, configuration can have a major impact on the environment. The aim of this study is to highlight the environmental impact from converting 1 ha of land used entirely for agricultural production to 1 ha of an agrivoltaic system, and from converting 1 ha of land used entirely for solar photovoltaic energy production to 1 ha of an agrivoltaic system through a life cycle assessment. Three different configurations of agrivoltaics systems are considered to assess the environmental potential of agrivoltaics configurations. This analysis is performed with SimaPro 9.4 software, using the ReCiPe Midpoint (H) method and the Eco-invent database. The study determined impacts on global warming, stratospheric ozone depletion, ionizing radiation, ozone formation, mineral resource scarcity, fossil resource scarcity, water consumption, and land use through the determination of the Land Equivalent Ratio (LER). The results show that impacts are highest for PV power plants, followed by the agrivoltaic system with the largest PV panels for all indicators, except for stratospheric ozone depletion, where impacts are highest for agrivoltaics and agricultural use systems. The results of the land evaluation showed that the agrivoltaic system Case 3 gave the best performance, with a Land Equivalent Ratio of 148.7%.