Background. Attitudes towards conventional and complementary medicine among future healthcare professionals can impact their future pharmacotherapy practice. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and predisposing factors related to self-medication among medical and pharmacy students. Methods. This cross-sectional questionnaire-based study was performed at the Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad, Serbia, on first- and final-year students of medicine and pharmacy. The multivariate Poisson regression model with robust variance was used to identify the main predictors of self-medication. Results. The overall self-medication prevalence in the past year was 81.3%. Independent risk factors for self-medication identified in the regression analysis were the final study year, housing condition, i.e., living in a leased apartment or in a student dormitory in comparison to living with parents, and cigarette consumption. The conventional drugs were the most frequently used, mostly for the symptoms of cold and pain. Final-year students had more confidence in conventional medicines than in herbal drugs and were more aware of the risks of their concomitant use. Conclusion. Self-medication is highly prevalent among students of medical sciences, especially among final-year students. Increased medical knowledge led to the higher awareness of the drug interaction risks.

The gut–brain axis is a bidirectional communication network in which gut microbiota and their metabolites influence central nervous system (CNS) function. Among these metabolites, bile acids have emerged as key signaling molecules that modulate metabolic and neuroendocrine pathways. Microbiota-mediated modifications of bile acid composition affect receptors such as farnesoid X receptor (FXR)and Takeda G protein-coupled receptor 5 (TGR5), thereby influencing neuronal activity, appetite control, glucose metabolism, and energy balance. Emerging evidence indicates that bile acids act both directly on the CNS and indirectly via endocrine and immune mediators, linking microbial metabolism to brain function. By integrating microbiological, metabolic, and neuroendocrine perspectives, bile acids can be viewed as critical messengers in the communication between the gut microbiota and the CNS. The purpose of this review is thus to synthesize current mechanisms underlying these interactions and highlight their therapeutic potential in metabolic and neurodegenerative disorders.

Nano-drug delivery systems provide targeted solutions for addressing various drug delivery challenges, leveraging nanotechnology to enhance drug solubility and permeability. Liposomes, explored for several decades, face hurdles, especially in oral delivery. Bile-acid stabilized vesicles (bilosomes) are flexible lipid vesicles, composed of phospholipids or other surfactants, along with amphiphilic bile salts, and they show superior stability and pharmacokinetic behavior in comparison to conventional vesicular systems (liposomes and niosomes). Bilosomes enhance skin penetration, fluidize the stratum corneum, and improve drug stability. In oral applications, bilosomes overcome drawbacks, offering improved bioavailability, controlled release, and reduced side effects. Vaccines using bilosomes demonstrate efficacy, and bilosomes for intranasal, inhalation, ocular, and buccal applications enhance drug delivery, offering targeted, efficient, and controlled activities. Formulations vary based on active substances and optimization techniques, showcasing the versatility and potential of bilosomes across diverse drug delivery routes. Therefore, the aim of this comprehensive review was to critically explore the state-of-the-art of bilosomes in drug delivery and potential therapeutic applications.

Despite its beneficial pharmacological effects in the brain, partly by modulating inositol phosphate multikinase (IPMK) activity, the therapeutic use of quercetin is limited due to its poor solubility, low oral bioavailability, and low permeability through the blood–brain barrier (BBB). We aimed to identify quercetin analogues with improved BBB permeability and preserved binding affinities towards IPMK and to identify the molecular characteristics required for them to permeate the BBB. Binding affinities of quercetin analogues towards IPMK were determined by molecular docking. Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to identify the molecular descriptors contributing to efficient permeation through the BBB. Among 34 quercetin analogues, 19 compounds were found to form more stable complexes with IPMK, and the vast majority were found to be more lipophilic than quercetin. Using two distinct in silico techniques, insufficient BBB permeation was determined for all quercetin analogues. However, using the PCA method, the descriptors related to intrinsic solubility and lipophilicity (logP) were identified as mainly responsible for clustering four quercetin analogues (trihydroxyflavones) with the highest BBB permeability. The application of PCA revealed that quercetin analogues could be classified with respect to their structural characteristics, which may be utilized in further analogue syntheses and lead optimization of BBB-penetrating IPMK modulators as neuroprotective agents.

Clindamycin hydrochloride is a widely used antibiotic for topical use, but its main disadvantage is poor skin penetration. Therefore, new approaches in the development of clindamycin topical formulations are of great importance. We aimed to investigate the effects of the type of gelling agent (carbomer and sodium carmellose), and the type and concentration of bile acids as penetration enhancers (0.1% and 0.5% of cholic and deoxycholic acid), on clindamycin release rate and permeation in a cellulose membrane in vitro model. Eight clindamycin hydrogel formulations were prepared using a 2³ full factorial design, and they were evaluated for physical appearance, pH, drug content, drug release, and permeability parameters. Although formulations with carbomer as the gelling agent exerted optimal sensory properties, carmellose sodium hydrogels had significantly higher release rates and permeation of clindamycin hydrochloride. The bile acid enhancement factors were higher in carbomer gels, and cholic acid exerted more pronounced permeation-enhancing effects. Since the differences in the permeation parameters of hydrogels containing cholic acid in different concentrations were insignificant, its addition in a lower concentration is more favorable. The hydrogel containing carmellose sodium as a gelling agent and 0.1% cholic acid as a penetration enhancer can be considered as the formulation of choice.