Climate change is significantly altering Ethiopia’s weather patterns, causing substantial shifts in temperature and precipitation extremes. This study examines historical trends and changes in extreme rainfall and temperature, as well as seasonal rainfall variability across Ethiopia. In this study, we employed the Mann–Kendall test, Sen’s slope estimator, and empirical orthogonal function (EOF), with data from 103 stations (1994–2023). The findings provide insights into 16 climate extremes of temperature and precipitation by utilizing the climpact2.GUI tool in R software (v1.2). The study found statistical increases were observed in 59.22% of the annual maximum value of daily maximum temperature (TXx) and 77.67% of the annual maximum value of daily minimum temperature (TNx). Conversely, decreasing trends were found in 51.46% of the annual maximum daily maximum temperature (TXn) and 85.44% of the diurnal temperature range (DTR). The results of extreme precipitation found that 72.82% of yearly total precipitation (PRCPTOT), 73.79% of consecutive wet days (CWD), and 54.37% of the number of heavy precipitation days (R10mm) showed increasing trends. In contrast, at most selected stations, 61.17% of consecutive dry days (CDD), 55.34% of maximum 1-day precipitation (RX1day), 56.31% of maximum 5-day precipitation (RX5day), 66.02% of precipitation from very wet days (R95p), and 52.43% of precipitation from extremely wet days (R99p) were decreasing. The results of seasonal precipitation variability during Ethiopia’s JJAS (Kiremt) season found that the first three EOF modes accounted for 59.78% of the variability. Notably, EOF1, which accounted for 35.84% of this variability, showed declining rainfall patterns, particularly in northwestern and central-western Ethiopia. The findings of this study will help policymakers and stakeholders understand these changes and take necessary action, as well as build effective adaptation and mitigation measures in the face of climate change impacts.

This bibliographic article on Drought and Water Level examined the relationship between organizations, nations, institutions, authors, references, and publishers. It examined 742 papers from Web of Science at the Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology’s. The total annual publication volume of articles was increased steadily from 2012 to 2021, with China and the United States ranking first and second in terms of publication volume and citations but in quality Switzerland and England were top-level. Institutional-partnership analyses indicated disparities in network density and connections, with the Chinese Academy of Sciences (2012) receiving the highest citations and degrees. The document co-citation analysis (DCA) network was created to improve understanding of the frequency and amplitude of bursts of various publications in separate clusters. The most cited work was J Hydrol (2012), with 302 citations. The analytical tool from CiteSpace collected high-frequency keywords and performed co-occurrence, grouping, and emerging word recognition. Gorges Dam is the most crowded cluster, followed by drought stress. The greatest burst duration and most significant phrase is reservoir (2019), followed by “water quality,” which has a 5 year burst period. Estuaries perform important functions such as water purification and coastal. “Reservoir, water quality, restoration, phytoplankton, temperature, wetland, time series, diversity and carbon dioxide” are the most important terms, while “climate change, drought, water level, impact, growth, variability, response, dynamics, management and model” are the most frequently used keywords. In terms of citations, references, and academic influence, Zhang Q. (2012), the R Core team (2014), and Jappen E. (2015) were the top three contributors. Cook, ER (2013), and Allen, R.G. (2019) ranked first and second in terms of frequency, respectively. In this review work, significant information gaps were discovered in the areas of microbiological dynamics, environmental variables, fen peat incubation, lake water, drought risk reduction, biological ecology, lake acidification, salinity variations, and attribution. Future researchers should focus on these and similar topics, while Chinese and USA authors should concentrate on article quality rather than publishing numbers.