Background: The foot is composed of medial, lateral and transverse arches which, particularly the medial arch, provide it with the ability to function both as a flexible and rigid structure for proper locomotion. Arches of the foot, as well as their effect on lower extremity function, have been studied. However, quantitative data on the relationship between these arches still remain scanty. The purpose of this study was, therefore, to examine how the three arches of the foot intercorrelate. Materials and methods: Seventy-six participants (58 males, 18 females) were recruited to participate in the study. Bilateral weight-bearing lateral radiographs of the right foot were taken from each participant. Navicular heights (NH), medial cuneiform height (MCH), calcaneal inclination angle (CIA) and calcaneal-first metatarsal angle (C1MA) were measured to represent the medial arch. The lateral arch was represented by cuboid height (CH) and calcaneal-fifth metatarsal angle (C5MA) whereas; MCH and CH represented the transverse arch. Mean difference of variables between males and females was compared using independent t-test while the correlation between the variables was determined using Pearson correlation. Results: All the variables were not significantly related to gender. Significant moderate to excellent linear correlations were observed between the variables. CIA showed the strongest correlation with C1MA (r = –0.90) and C5MA (r = –0.84) whereas, CH had the least correlation with other variables. Conclusions: The moderate to excellent correlations between the variables indicate that deformation or elevation of the medial arch may consequently result in similar movements of the lateral and transverse arches and vice versa. Background: The foot is composed of medial, lateral and transverse arches which, particularly the medial arch, provide it with the ability to function both as a flexible and rigid structure for proper locomotion. Arches of the foot, as well as their effect on lower extremity function, have been studied. However, quantitative data on the relationship between these arches still remain scanty. The purpose of this study was, therefore, to examine how the three arches of the foot intercorrelate. Materials and methods: Seventy-six participants (58 males, 18 females) were recruited to participate in the study. Bilateral weight-bearing lateral radiographs of the right foot were taken from each participant. Navicular heights (NH), medial cuneiform height (MCH), calcaneal inclination angle (CIA) and calcaneal-first metatarsal angle (C1MA) were measured to represent the medial arch. The lateral arch was represented by cuboid height (CH) and calcaneal-fifth metatarsal angle (C5MA) whereas; MCH and CH represented the transverse arch. Mean difference of variables between males and females was compared using independent t-test while the correlation between the variables was determined using Pearson correlation. Results: All the variables were not significantly related to gender. Significant moderate to excellent linear correlations were observed between the variables. CIA showed the strongest correlation with C1MA (r = –0.90) and C5MA (r = –0.84) whereas, CH had the least correlation with other variables. Conclusions: The moderate to excellent correlations between the variables indicate that deformation or elevation of the medial arch may consequently result in similar movements of the lateral and transverse arches and vice versa.

The spinal nucleus of the accessory nerve (SNA) comprises the group of somata (perikarya) of motor neurons that supply the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles. There are many conflicting views regarding the longitudinal extent and topography of the SNA, even in the same species, and these disagreements prompted the present investigation. Thirty Sprague–Dawley rats (15 males, 15 females) were used. The SNA was localized by retrograde axonal transport of horseradish peroxidase. Longitudinally, the SNA was found to be located in the caudal part (caudal 0.9–1.2 mm) of the medulla oblongata, the whole lengths of cervical spinal cord segments C1, C2, C3, C4, C5 and rostral fourth of C6. In the caudal part of the medulla oblongata, the SNA was represented by a group of perikarya of motor neurons lying immediately ventrolateral to the pyramidal fibres that were passing dorsolaterally after their decussation. In the spinal cord, the motor neuronal somata of the SNA were located in the dorsomedial and central columns at C1, in the dorsomedial, central and ventrolateral columns at C2 and in the ventrolateral column only at C3, C4, C5 and rostral quarter of C6. The perikarya of motor neurons supplying the sternocleidomastoid were located in the caudal part (caudal 0.9–1.2 mm) of the medulla oblongata ventrolateral to the pyramidal fibres that were passing dorsolaterally after their decussation. They were also located in the dorsomedial and central columns at C1, in the dorsomedial, central and ventrolateral columns at C2 and only in the ventrolateral column at the rostral three‐quarters of C3. The perikarya of motor neurons supplying the trapezius muscle were located in the ventrolateral column only in the caudal three‐quarters of C2, the whole lengths of C3, C4 and C5, and in the rostral quarter of C6.

Lecturing is widely considered to be a passive, teacher-centred teaching method that fails to foster learning, yet it remains the most feasible method of teaching among higher institutions. Some modern lectures, aligned with recommendations from published guidelines on effective lecturing, are less didactic and more interactive than others, but little is known about converting the classical knowledge-transfer process of lecturing to actual learning. We introduce a cognitive load theory-based lecture guideline that adopts various types of empirically proven strategies to manage learners’ mental loads during lectures. We conducted a randomised controlled trial to evaluate its effectiveness by determining the between-group difference in cognitive load level, self-perceived learning, knowledge acquisition and knowledge retention. This study discusses the practical application of the guideline and several examples of the principles.

There is a need to create a standard interactive anatomy lecture that can engage students in their learning process. This study investigated the impact of a new lecturing guideline, the Cognitive Load Theory-based Lecture Model (CLT-bLM), on students' cognitive engagement and motivation. A randomised controlled trial involving 197 participants from three institutions was conducted. The control group attended a freestyle lecture on the gross anatomy of the heart, delivered by a qualified anatomist from each institution. The intervention group attended a CLT-bLM-based lecture on a similar topic, delivered by the same lecturer, three weeks thereafter. The lecturers had attended a CLT-bLM workshop that allowed them to prepare for the CLT-bLM-based lecture over the course of three weeks. The students' ratings on their cognitive engagement and internal motivation were evaluated immediately after the lecture using a validated Learners' Engagement and Motivation Questionnaire. The differences between variables were analysed and the results were triangulated with the focus group discussion findings that explored students' experience while attending the lecture. The intervention group has a significantly higher level of cognitive engagement than the control group; however, no significant difference in internal motivation score was found. In addition, the intervention group reported having a good learning experience from the lectures. The guideline successfully stimulated students' cognitive engagement and learning experience, which indicates a successful stimulation of students' germane resources. Stimulation of these cognitive resources is essential for successful cognitive processing, especially when learning a difficult subject such as anatomy.