The impacts of climate change on agricultural production are becoming more severe, leading to increased food insecurity. Adopting more progressive methodologies, like smart farming instead of conventional methods, is essential for enhancing production. Consequently, livestock production is swiftly evolving towards smart farming systems, propelled by rapid advancements in technology such as cloud computing, the Internet of Things, big data, machine learning, augmented reality, and robotics. A Digital Twin (DT), an aspect of cutting-edge digital agriculture technology, represents a virtual replica or model of any physical entity (physical twin) linked through real-time data exchange. A DT conceptually mirrors the state of its physical counterpart in real time and vice versa. DT adoption in the livestock sector remains in its early stages, revealing a knowledge gap in fully implementing DTs within livestock systems. DTs in livestock hold considerable promise for improving animal health, welfare, and productivity. This research provides an overview of the current landscape of digital transformation in the livestock sector, emphasizing applications in animal monitoring, environmental management, precision agriculture, and supply chain optimization. Our findings highlight the need for high-quality data, comprehensive data privacy measures, and integration across varied data sources to ensure accurate and effective DT implementation. Similarly, the study outlines their possible applications and effects on livestock and the challenges and limitations, including concerns about data privacy, the necessity for high-quality data to ensure accurate simulations and predictions, and the intricacies involved in integrating various data sources. Finally, the paper delves into the possibilities of digital twins in livestock, emphasizing potential paths for future research and progress.

A lightweight strawberry detection and localization algorithm plays a crucial role in enabling the harvesting robot to effectively harvest strawberries. The YOLO model has often been used in strawberry fruit detection for its high accuracy, speed, and robustness. However, some challenges exist, such as the requirement for large model sizes, high computation operation, and undesirable detection. Therefore, the lightweight improved YOLOv5s-CGhostnet was proposed to enhance strawberry detection. In this study, YOLOv5s underwent comprehensive model compression with Ghost modules GCBS and GC3, replacing modules CBS and C3 in the backbone and neck. Furthermore, the default GIOU bounding box regressor loss function was replaced by SIOU for improved localization. Similarly, CBAM attention modules were added before SPPF and between the up-sampling and down-sampling feature fusion FPN–PAN network in the neck section. The improved model exhibited higher mAP@0.5 of 91.7% with a significant decrement in model size by 85.09% and a reduction in GFLOPS by 88.5% compared to the baseline model of YOLOv5. The model demonstrated an increment in mean average precision, a decrement in model size, and reduced computation overhead compared to the standard lightweight YOLO models.

The optimal indoor environment is associated with comfortable temperatures along with favorable indoor air quality. One of the air pollutants, particulate matter (PM), is potentially harmful to animals and humans. Most farms have monitoring systems to identify other hazardous gases rather than PM due to the sensor cost. In recent decades, the application of environmental monitoring systems based on Internet of Things (IoT) devices that incorporate low-cost sensors has elevated extensively. The current study develops a low-cost air quality monitoring system for swine buildings based on Raspberry Pi single-board computers along with a sensor array. The system collects data using 11 types of environmental variables along with temperature, humidity, CO₂, light, pressure, and different types of gases, namely PM₁, PM_2.5, and PM₁₀. The system is designed with a central web server that provides real-time data visualization and data availability through the Internet. It was tested in actual pig barns to ensure stability and functionality. In addition, there was a collocation test conducted by placing the system in two different pig barns to validate the sensor data. The Wilcoxon rank sum test demonstrates that there are no significant differences between the two sensor datasets, as all variables have a p-value greater than 0.05. However, except for carbon monoxide (CO), none of the variables exhibit correlation exceeding 0.5 with PM concentrations. Overall, a scalable, portable, non-complex, low-cost air quality monitoring system was successfully developed within a cost of USD 94.

Accurate fruit counting is crucial for data-driven decision-making in modern precision agriculture. In strawberry cultivation, a labor-intensive sector, automated, scalable yield estimation is especially critical. However, dense foliage, variable lighting, visual ambiguity of ripeness stages, and fruit clustering pose significant challenges. To overcome these, we developed a real-time multi-stage framework for strawberry detection and counting by optimizing a YOLOv8s detector and integrating a class-aware tracking system. The detector was enhanced with a lightweight C3x module, an additional detection head for small objects, and the Wise-IOU (WIoU) loss function, thereby improving performance against occlusion. Our final model achieved a 92.5% mAP@0.5, outperforming the baseline while reducing the number of parameters by 27.9%. This detector was integrated with the ByteTrack multiple object tracking (MOT) algorithm. Our system enabled accurate, automated fruit counting in complex greenhouse environments. When validated on video data, results showed a strong correlation with ground-truth counts (R² = 0.914) and a low mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) of 9.52%. Counting accuracy was highest for ripe strawberries (R² = 0.950), confirming the value for harvest-ready estimation. This work delivers an efficient, accurate, and resource-conscious solution for automated yield monitoring in commercial strawberry production.

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentrations play an important role in plant production, as they have a direct impact on both plant growth and yield. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to predict CO₂ concentrations in the greenhouse by applying time series models using five datasets. To estimate the CO₂ concentrations, this study was conducted over a four-month period from 1 December 2023 to 31 March 2024, in a strawberry-cultivating greenhouse. Fifteen sensors (MCH-383SD, Lutron, Taiwan) were installed inside the greenhouse to measure CO₂ concentration at 1-min intervals. Finally, the dataset was transformed into intervals of 1, 5, 10, 30, and 60 min. The time-series data were analyzed using the autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) and the Prophet Forecasting Model (PFM), with performance assessed through root mean square error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), and coefficient of determination (R²). The evaluation indicated that the best model performance was achieved with data collected at 1-min intervals, while model performance declined with longer intervals, with the lowest performance observed at 60-min intervals. Specifically, the ARIMA model outperformed across all data collection intervals while comparing with the PFM. The ARIMA model, with data collected at 1-min intervals, achieved an R² of 0.928, RMSE of 7.359, and MAE of 2.832. However, both ARIMA and PFM exhibited poorer performances as the interval of data collection increased, with the lowest performance at 60-min intervals where ARIMA had an R² of 0.762, RMSE of 19.469, and MAE of 11.48. This research underscores the importance of frequent data collection for precise environmental control in greenhouse agriculture, emphasizing the critical role of short-interval data collection for accurate predictive modeling.

Accurate localization of picking points and depth estimation is critical for implementing a robotic strawberry harvesting system. Due to the delicate nature of strawberries, harvesting must be performed without bruising or damage, typically by grasping and cutting the peduncle of the ripe strawberry. However, accurately detecting and localizing the thin peduncle in a cluttered environment is a significant challenge. This study proposed depth fused Mask R-CNN (DF-Mask R-CNN), which integrates depth information of the scene with the RGB image to enhance the detection, localization, and segmentation of strawberries and their peduncles in a greenhouse environment. To generate a dense depth map, a cutting-edge monocular depth estimator, ZoeDepth was used. The proposed DF-Mask R-CNN with ResNet101-FPN exhibited superior instance segmentation performance, with an overall mAP of 81.9%, with mAP_small at 33.3%, mAP_medium at 78.79%, mAP_large at 88.8 and AP^IOU=0.5 at 98.1%. In tests with 300 ripe strawberry samples, the method demonstrated a robust picking point detection, with a mean absolute error and root mean square error of 1.98 cm and 2.12 cm, respectively. These results highlight the effectiveness of the DF-Mask R-CNN model combined with the ZoeDepth estimator in enhancing the detection, localization, and segmentation of strawberries and their peduncles. This approach enables precise picking point localization and depth estimation for efficient vision systems for robotic strawberry harvesting.