Challenging environmental conditions are major factors that severely affect plant growth and limit agricultural productivity. To mitigate these stresses, plants have evolved various adaptive mechanisms. Among these, Late Embryogenesis Abundant (LEA) proteins play a pivotal role in responding to abiotic stresses and participate in a reciprocal regulatory network with the abscisic acid (ABA) signaling pathway. However, the precise molecular mechanisms underlying this reciprocity and the full composition of this network require systematic integration. This review synthesizes recent advances to propose a novel “ABA-LEA feedback loop” model and presents a comprehensive analysis of the classification into seven groups, structural features, molecular functions and mechanisms by which LEA proteins contribute to plant stress resistance. Special emphasis is placed on the intricate interplay between LEA proteins and the ABA signaling pathway, encompassing both the ABA-dependent regulation of LEA expression and the reciprocal feedback exerted by LEA proteins on ABA signaling through mechanisms that influence ABA homeostasis and signaling. By synthesizing evidence for this reciprocal regulation, this review establishes a novel feedback loop model that redefines LEA proteins as active modulators rather than passive effectors in stress signaling, offering new theoretical targets for breeding stress-resilient crops.

Stomata mediate gas exchanges between plant and environment. To adapt to environmental conditions, plants open and close stomatal pores and even regulate the number of stomata that develop on the epidermis. Recent studies have brought to light the elements of the genetic basis underlying stomatal development. They have also revealed how these elements are controlled by environmental factors (mainly light and carbon dioxide). In this review, we discussed the molecular basis of stomatal development and physiological mechanisms regulating this process. Future prospects related to stomatal development are proposed.

Soil salinity is a major constraint on global agricultural productivity. This study evaluated the efficacy of a cell-free extract from Trichoderma hamatum (designated BEYF) in enhancing salt stress tolerance in lettuce (Lactuca sativa). Lettuce plants under normal and salt-stressed conditions exposed to 200 mM NaCl were treated with either water or YF (the working solution of BEYF) at concentrations of 0.05, 0.10, and 0.25 mg/L. Compared to the control, YF application significantly improved plant growth under salt stress, as indicated by increased plant height, biomass, leaf area, and other agronomic traits. Physiologically, YF mitigated oxidative membrane damage, as indicated by reduced electrolyte leakage and malondialdehyde (MDA) content, while promoting the accumulation of the osmoprotectant proline. Histochemical staining further confirmed that YF effectively suppressed hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) accumulation and preserved cell viability under salt stress. At the molecular level, YF significantly up-regulated the expression of key stress-responsive genes, including those involved in abscisic acid biosynthesis (NCED1, NCED2), signaling (WRKY58), and proline synthesis (P5CSs). Collectively, our findings demonstrate that BEYF enhances lettuce salt tolerance through integrated physiological, cellular, and transcriptional adaptations, supporting its potential as a sustainable biostimulant for improving crop cultivation in saline soils.