Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are a leading cause of global mortality, accounting for 71% of deaths annually, with similar trends observed in Saudi Arabia. The Saudi Healthy Plate 2024 (SHP-2024) was developed by the National Nutrition Committee of the Saudi Food and Drug Authority to address the population’s nutritional needs and reduce the burden of NCDs. SHP-2024 provides balanced and culturally appropriate dietary recommendations. SHP-2024 was designed using optimization modeling techniques, incorporating global best practices, expert consultations, and rigorous validation processes. The dietary patterns were calibrated to ensure nutritional adequacy and economic feasibility. Monte Carlo simulations with 10,000 iterations were used to evaluate nutrient intake adequacy across various calorie levels (1,600–3,200 kcal). Nutritional constraints and economic assessments adhered to Saudi regulatory standards and data from the General Authority for Statistics. SHP-2024 met the average requirements for most macronutrients and micronutrients, including protein, key vitamins, and minerals, across all calorie patterns. However, the amount of vitamin E provided by SHP-2024, relative to the average requirement of 12.00 mg (95% CI: 8.40–15.60), covered only 60.93% of requirement in males and 60.61% in females. Choline intake with average requirement of 320.00 mg (95% CI: 224.00–416.00), met 73.71% of requirement in males and 73.36% in females. The cost of dietary patterns ranged from 380.70 to 762.70 SAR, indicating overall affordability. SHP-2024 provides optimized dietary guidance suited to Saudi needs, supporting efforts to reduce NCD burdens. While most nutritional targets were achieved, persistent gaps in vitamin E and choline intake require targeted strategies in future updates to enhance dietary adequacy.

Introduction: Noncommunicable diseases, which account for 71% of annual global deaths, necessitate the implementation of targeted legislative measures to reduce exposure to risk factors, particularly those related to nutrition. Accurately assessing these risk factors is challenging owing to infrequent national surveys, high costs, and uncertainties from human behavior. Thus, addressing these issues is crucial. This study aimed to develop a model for estimating dietary exposure. Methods: Our study utilizes the National Nutrient Consumption (NNC) model, which employs a probabilistic and cost-effective approach. This model leverages open data and focuses on supply chain dynamics and uncertainties, integrating import, production, and stock levels. It estimates commodity supply, consumption, and nutrient intake using predictive coefficients from historical data. Model accuracy was assessed using mean absolute error, correlation coefficient, and one-sample t test. The findings were evaluated against the recommended intake outlined in the Technical Regulation of Food Labeling (SFDA.FD 2233). Results: The model demonstrated high accuracy in estimating dietary intake, with minimal error margins. For both genders, the 50th percentile nutrient exposure exceeded the reference values – with males consuming 3,310 kcal (+65%), 144 g of total fat (+105%), 33.8 g of saturated fat (+69%), 86 g of free sugar (+72%), and 2,545 mg of sodium daily (+0.06%); females consumed 3,306 kcal (+65%), 143 g of total fat (+104%), 33.5 g of saturated fat (+67%), 86 g of free sugar (72%), and 2,500 mg of sodium (+4%). Conclusion: The model, both cost-effective and accurate, identifies elevated nutritional risk factors in Saudi Arabia, informing targeted health policies.

No study has investigated the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on the public’s interest in using energy labelling on restaurant menus. This study explores the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the public interest in using energy labelling on restaurant menus and meal delivery applications and the impact of energy-labelling availability on food choices during the COVID-19 pandemic in Saudi Arabia. An online questionnaire was completed by 1657 participants aged ≥ 18 years. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, 32% of customers visited a restaurant 2–4 times/week. However, during the pandemic, 35% of customers visited a restaurant only once per week. There was no difference in interest in reading energy labelling or using meal delivery applications before and during the pandemic. During the COVID-19 pandemic, about 55% of restaurant customers reported that they had noticed energy labelling, with 42% of them being influenced by the energy-labelling information. Regarding energy information on food delivery applications, 40% of customers noticed energy labelling when using the applications, with 33% of them being affected by the energy labelling. Customer interest in reading about energy on restaurant menus during the pandemic did not change significantly from the level of interest before the pandemic. The interest expressed by the public in using the energy labelling was low both before and during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs), a significant cause of global mortality, necessitate targeted policy measures to reduce exposure to risk factors, particularly nutrition-related ones. Front-of-pack food labeling aims to shape consumer behavior and decrease exposure to nutritional risk factors. There are various forms of this policy, including traffic light (TL), nutrient profile model (NPM), and reference value (RV) labels. Mathematical models incorporating experimental and dose–response data support determining the most effective form. When selecting a modeling method, it is essential to consider the uncertainty involved in estimating risk factors. This study aims to create a computational model to predict the health and economic impacts of different policy options using an improved version of the Scarborough algorithm, incorporating a validation process to address potential uncertainties. The model shows that NPM was the most effective, reducing the estimated annual mortality rate from 514,247 cases to 447,394 cases (13% reduction). The following labels were TL (11% reduction) and RV (6% reduction). Economically, the RV label affects consumer spending the least, predicting an 8% increase in monthly spending per individual from the baseline. When assessed from both health and economic perspectives, the RV label has emerged as the most advantageous front-of-pack food labeling policy. The proposed model can aid policymakers in evaluating policy alternatives and thus selecting the most advantageous policies based on health and economic outcomes while ensuring the model's accuracy and applicability for the community.

Non‑communicable diseases (NCDs) pose a significant health challenge in Saudi Arabia, where 18.95% of adults report at least one chronic condition, including diabetes (9.1%), hypertension (7.9%), and cardiovascular diseases (1.5%). This burden highlights the need for reliable, national‑level estimation of dietary intake and nutrient adequacy to inform evidence‑based nutrition policy. Therefore, this study aimed to estimate dietary intake, nutrient exposure, and adequacy among Saudi adults using an updated, locally developed probabilistic model (NNC‑v2). This modeling study was developed a model using nationally published data from Saudi Arabia starting in 2010. The model was designed to generate probabilistic estimates that account for uncertainty and variability by linking food supply data to population-level intake and nutrient exposure. Model parameters were specified as statistical distributions rather than fixed values, allowing variability and uncertainty to propagate through the estimation process. Age-related intake adjustment and routine variation were incorporated within the model structure. Nutrient adequacy was evaluated using a Monte Carlo–based Average Requirement cut-point approach (10,000 iterations). Predictive performance was assessed indirectly by comparing model-derived food expenditure with national survey data. Grains estimated intake (mean 278 g/day), followed by protein foods (120 g/day). Median energy intake was 2399 kcal/day in males and 2366 kcal/day in females. Estimated intake levels were evaluated against the Average Requirement (AR) values of 320 µg/day for folate and 75–90 mg/day for vitamin C. Among individuals with intake below the AR, the mean intake gaps were approximately 97 µg/day for folate and 27 mg/day for vitamin C. Magnesium intake was evaluated relative to AR values of 350 mg/day for males and 255 mg/day for females. Model-estimated monthly food expenditure closely aligned with national data (7% difference in 2018; 2% in 2023). NNC-v2 offers a probabilistic framework for estimating dietary intake and nutrient adequacy at the national level in Saudi Arabia within the available data sources. The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40795-026-01341-0.

This study updates the average requirement for energy intake (AR-EI) for the Saudi population, thereby addressing outdated references. Previous estimates relied on generalized equations and non-specific data, which often led to overestimations. This study aimed to establish new AR-EI values for Saudi population. The study methodology combined two complementary approaches to estimate energy requirements. For adults, a factorial approach was used, incorporating physical activity levels observed in the Saudi population along with reference values for body weight and height, applied in published Saudi predictive equations for Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR). For infants, children, and adolescents (0-17 years), the study used Total Energy Expenditure (TEE) predictive equations derived from multi-country doubly labeled water (DLW) studies. After calculating the requirements across different age groups and sexes, the value representing the average that meets the needs of 50% of the population was identified and adopted as the AR-EI. The AR-EI values ranged from 393 kcal/day during the first six months to 778 kcal/day by 12 months for male infants, while female infants required 364-748 kcal/day. Among children and adolescents, AR-EI values ranged from 912 to 3147 kcal/day. For adults, the AR-EI was estimated at 2207 kcal/day for men and 1708 kcal/day for women under current activity levels. With increased physical activity, these requirements rose to 3153 kcal/day for men and 2440 kcal/day for women. This study identified significant overestimations in previous references owing to the reliance on generalized equations and outdated data. By incorporating Saudi-specific data, these findings provide accurate and practical benchmarks for energy intake. These results serve as a foundation for evidence-based nutritional guidelines, promoting public health and reducing the incidence of diet-related diseases.