Context: Optimizing landscape patterns by considering ecosystem services and human well-being is crucial for landscape sustainability research. Such optimization process shall also consider multiple stakeholders’ perspectives, interests and benefits, which remain less well investigated. Objectives: The study aims to integrate ecosystem services and land-use scenario analysis to design sustainable landscapes. The overall goal of spatial optimization is to explore pathways towards sustainable development. Methods: This study uses the Mulberry-Dyke and Fish-Pond System as a representative agricultural landscape. It analyzes the spatiotemporal pattern of the landscape from 1975 to 2019. The market value method, InVEST model, and MaxEnt model are used to quantify the ecosystem services of the landscape. The analytic hierarchy process is used to set the weight of ecosystem services from the perspective of three stakeholder groups. We compare the outcomes of different scenarios and assessed through emergy yield ratio, environmental loading ratio, and environmental sustainability index. Results: Our results indicated that: (1) The scale of the Mulberry-Dyke and Fish-Pond system decreased significantly from 1975 to 2019. (2) Among the six major ecosystem services, the average value of water purification service was the highest, while average value of mulberry supply service was the lowest. (3) Spatial optimization of the three design objectives, ‘sustainably intensify’, ‘increase landscape multifunctionality’, and ‘restore ecological integrity’, were primarily distributed in the study area’s eastern, central, and western regions, respectively. (4) All three stakeholder-oriented scenarios showed improvements in ecological quality or agricultural output. Conclusions: Our study incorporates viewpoints of critical, diverse stakeholders in the assessment of ecosystem services and scenario analysis to establish sustainable and culturally important agricultural landscape. The framework and methods can help minimize environmental stress on the system, balance agricultural productivity and profitability, and enhance the sustainability of agricultural landscapes.

However, in reality, urban, rural, and natural areas are always interconnected and interacting with each other, together forming regional landscapes which represent a pivotal scale domain for sustainability research and practice

Agricultural Heritage Systems exhibit multiple functions of agricultural production, ecological protection, and invaluable cultures and landscapes. The mulberry-dyke and fish-pond system is an important agricultural heritage. The Nanxun District of Huzhou, China is currently the area with the most complete and largest mulberry dykes and fish ponds in the world. In the past thirty years, with changes in labor force distribution and consumer demand, the production function of mulberry dyke and fish ponds has been challenged, and the production landscape as the carrier of farming culture has been threatened. Studying the spatial characteristics and optimization of mulberry dykes and fish ponds is of great significance to the sustainable development of the regional economy, culture, and environment. This study analyzes the spatial and temporal pattern evolution of mulberry dyke and fish ponds in Nanxun District since 1975. Based on the evaluation of the environmental carrying capacity of fish ponds, and according to the development goals of agricultural heritage inheritance and “planting and breeding balance”, the Future Land Use Simulation model is adopted to optimize the study area. The results show the following findings: (1) From 1975 to 2019, fish ponds and construction land increased significantly, mulberry fields and paddy fields decreased significantly, the scale of mulberry dykes and fish ponds decreased significantly, and the proportion of mulberry dykes and fish ponds was seriously unbalanced; (2) The overall scale of fish-pond breeding in Nanxun District is too large, and the proportion of farming and breeding needs to be adjusted; (3) In view of economic growth, cultural inheritance, and environmental protection, this paper simulates the spatial layout of mulberry dykes and fish ponds in 2035, and divides mulberry dykes and fish ponds in Nanxun District into a display area and an industrial development area. The display area restores the traditional mulberry dykes and fish ponds to the greatest extent. The industrial development zone maximizes the economic benefits of agriculture on the basis of “balancing planting and breeding”. Overall, this study provides a reference for protecting Huzhou mulberry-dyke and fish-pond agricultural heritage, optimizing agricultural production space, balancing human–environment relationship, and promoting regional sustainable development.

Context Sustainable rural development, closely linked to well-being of both urban and rural residents, is essential to achieving regional sustainability. Understanding the spatial characteristics vital for rural sustainability is fundamental to rural sustainability assessment, regional ecosystem services provisioning, and human well-being research. Objective This study aimed to construct an indicator system to assess rural sustainability from multiple stakeholders' perspectives, and examine the spatial characteristics that affect rural sustainability from the perspectives of villagers, tourists, and the government. Methods This study proposed indicator systems for each group of stakeholders at the scale of administrative villages. It assessed the rural sustainability of Huzhou, one of China's most developed rural areas, by using multi-source and innovative datasets. Spatial heterogeneity of rural sustainability was examined by hot spots and gradient analysis and the spatial characteristics of rural landscapes were quantified from the dimensions of natural, humanistic, and infrastructural characteristics. The spatial random forest model was adopted to identify effects of different spatial characteristics on rural sustainability. Results Our results showed that hot spots of rural sustainability mainly concentrated in proximity to urban areas and scenic spots, showing a decreasing and then increasing trend with increasing distance. Compared with humanistic and infrastructural characteristics, natural characteristics of villages were more important to rural sustainability. The relationship between rural sustainability and spatial characteristics varied among different stakeholders. Natural characteristics had the greatest impact on rural sustainability from the perspectives of villagers and tourists, and humanistic and natural characteristics were more important from the perspective of governments. Conclusion This study revealed the relationship between rural sustainability and spatial characteristics at the administrative village scale from multi-stakeholder perspectives, which helps to guide rural landscape planning and governance, and improve the contributions of rural landscapes to regional sustainability.