Cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes are the most important metabolizing enzyme family exists among all organs. Apart from their role in the deactivation of most endogenous compounds and xenobiotics, they also mediate most procarcinogens oxidation to ultimate carcinogens. There are several modes of CYP450s activation of procarcinogens. 1) Formation of epoxide and diol-epoxides intermediates, such as CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 mediates PAHs oxidation to epoxide intermediates; 2) Formation of diazonium ions, such as CYP2A6, CYP2A13 and CYP2E1 mediates activation of most nitrosamines to unstable metabolites, which can rearrange to give diazonium ions. 3) Formation of reactive semiquinones and quinines, such as CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 transformation of estradiol to catechol estrogens, subsequently formation semiquinones; 4) Formation of toxic O-esterification, such as CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 metabolizes PhIP to N²-acetoxy-PhIP and N²-sulfonyloxy-PhIP, which are carcinogenic metabolites. 5) Formation of free radical, such as CYP2E1 is involved in activation tetrachloromethane to free radicals. While for CYP2B6 and CYP2D6, only a minor role has been found in procarcinogens activation. In addition, as the gene polymorphisms reflected, the polymorphisms of CYP1A1 (-3801T/C and -4889A/G), CYP1A2 (- 163C/A and -2467T/delT), CYP1B1 (-48G/C, -119G/T and -432G/C), CYP2E1 (-1293G/C and -1053 C/T) have been associated with an increased risk of lung cancer. The polymorphisms CYP1A1 (-3801T/C and -4889A/G), and CYP2E1 (PstI/Rsa and 9-bp insertion) have an association with higher risk colon cancers, whereas CYP1A2 (-163C/A and -3860G/A) polymorphism is found to be among the protective factors. The polymorphisms CYP1A1 (-3801T/C and -4889A/G), CYP1B1 -432G/C, CYP2B6 (-516G/T and -785A/G) may increase the risk of breast cancer. In conclusion, CYP1A1, CYP1A2, CYP1B1, CYP2A6, and CYP2E1 are responsible for most of the procarcinogens activation, and their gene polymorphisms are associated with the risk of cancers.

Celastrol and triptolide, as the two main bio-activity ingredients in Tripterygium wilfordii, have wide anticancer pharmacological potency, as well as anti-inflammatory and immunosuppression effects. However, they have potential hepatotoxicity and underlying mechanisms of them-induced toxicity mediated by hepatic CYP450s have not been well delineated. In the present study, we accessed the toxic effects and possible mechanism of celastrol and triptolide on primary rat hepatocytes. Models of subdued/enhanced activity of CYP450 enzymes in primary rat hepatocytes were also constructed to evaluate the relationship between the two ingredients and CYP450s. LC-MS/MS was used to establish a detection method of the amount of triptolide in rat hepatocytes. As the results, cell viability, biochemical index, and mitochondrial membrane potential indicated that celastrol and triptolide had toxic potencies on hepatocytes. Moreover, the toxic effects were enhanced when the compounds combined with 1-aminobenzotriazole (enzyme inhibitor) while they were mitigated when combined with phenobarbital (an enzyme inducer). Meanwhile, celastrol could affect the amount of triptolide in the cell. We therefore put forward that increase of triptolide in the cell might be one of the main causes of hepatotoxicity caused by Tripterygium wilfordii.

The purpose of this study was to develop novel liquid crystalline nanoparticles (LCNPs) that display improved pre-ocular residence time and ocular bioavailability and that can be used as an ophthalmic delivery system for tetrandrine (TET). The delivery system consisted of three primary components, including glyceryl monoolein, poloxamer 407, and water, and two secondary components, including Gelucire 44/14 and amphipathic octadecyl-quaternized carboxymethyl chitosan. The amount of TET, the amount of glyceryl monoolein, and the ratio of poloxamer 407 to glyceryl monoolein were selected as the factors that were used to optimize the dependent variables, which included encapsulation efficiency and drug loading. A three-factor, five-level central composite design was constructed to optimize the formulation. TET-loaded LCNPs (TET-LCNPs) were characterized to determine their particle size, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency, drug loading capacity, particle morphology, inner crystalline structure, and in vitro drug release profile. Corneal permeation in excised rabbit corneas was evaluated. Pre-ocular retention was determined using a noninvasive fluorescence imaging system. Finally, pharmacokinetic study in the aqueous humor was performed by microdialysis technique. The optimal formulation had a mean particle size of 170.0 ± 13.34 nm, a homogeneous distribution with polydispersity index of 0.166 ± 0.02, a positive surface charge with a zeta potential of 29.3 ± 1.25 mV, a high entrapment efficiency of 95.46 ± 4.13 %, and a drug loading rate of 1.63 ± 0.07 %. Transmission electron microscopy showed spherical particles that had smooth surfaces. Small-angle X-ray scattering profiles revealed an inverted hexagonal phase. The in vitro release assays showed a sustained drug release profile. A corneal permeation study showed that the apparent permeability coefficient of the optimal formulation was 2.03-fold higher than that of the TET solution. Pre-ocular retention capacity study indicated that the retention of LCNPs was significantly longer than that of the solution (p < 0.01). In addition, a pharmacokinetic study of rabbit aqueous humors demonstrated that the TET-LCNPs showed 2.65-fold higher ocular bioavailability than that of TET solution. In conclusion, a LCNP system could be a promising method for increasing the ocular bioavailability of TET by enhancing its retention time and permeation into the cornea.

1. Rhein, an active ingredient in the root of rhubarb, is used for its beneficial effects in a variety of clinical applications including the treatment of osteoarthritis and diabetic nephropathy. However, its hepatotoxicity has been reported in recent years. Rhein belongs to the conjugate structure which could be activated to reactive metabolites (RMs) inducing side-effects. This study is to explore the relationship between RMs and hepatotoxicity. 2. Based on the early detection of RMs, we have established a series of key technologies to research rhein hepatotoxicity mechanism: IC₅₀ shift experiments and reduced glutathione (GSH) trapping experiment are adopted to identify RMs. The model of low activity of CYP450 enzymes (CYPs) in primary rat hepatocyte is constructed to analyze the relationship between the primary metabolic enzyme and hepatotoxicity of rhein better. 3. The IC₅₀ shift value for CYP2C19 is 1.989, it suggests that CYP2C19 could activate rhein to RM. The structure of RM is epoxide intermediate. Besides, it is found that CYP2C19 is a primary metabolic enzyme for rhein. In the cytotoxicity assay, it is reported that rhein could cause mitochondrial dysfunction. Furthermore, mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψ_m) and AST levels could be restored by adding inhibitor of CYP2C19 together with rhein, which further shows that CYP2C19 could mediate the hepatotoxicity of rhein. 4. We put forward the possible mechanism that reactive metabolite activation by CYP2C19 mediated rhein hepatotoxicity, it provides important information on predicting in vivo drug-induced liver injury (DILI).

Herbal remedies are regularly used to complement conventional therapies in the treatment of various illnesses in Africa. This may be because they are relatively cheap and easily accessible and are believed by many to be safe, cause fewer side effects, and are less likely to cause dependency. On the contrary, many herbs have been shown to alter the pharmacokinetics of coadministered allopathic medicines and can either synergize or antagonize therapeutic effects as well as altering the toxicity profiles of these drugs. Current disease burden data point towards epidemiological transitions characterised by increasing urbanization and changing lifestyles, risk factors for chronic diseases like hypertension, diabetes, and cancer which often present as multimorbidities. As a result, we highlight African herb‐drug interactions (HDIs) modulated via cytochrome P450 enzyme family (CYP) and P‐glycoprotein (P‐gp) and the consequences thereof in relation to antihypertensive, antidiabetic, and anticancer drugs. CYPs are enzymes which account for to up to 70% of drug metabolism while P‐gp is an efflux pump that extrudes drug substrates out of cells. Consequently, regulation of the relative activity of both CYP and P‐gp by African herbs influences the effective drug concentration at the site of action and modifies therapeutic outcomes.